Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune

Calculus and Statistics

 UNIT 1
FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE VARIABLE
Sequence
Infinite Series
Test of Convergence
Power Series , Region of Convergence,
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series
 Recall
Carstesian Product of two sets
Let A and B be two non-empty sets then , the cartesian product of A and B is denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵 and is
defined as set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a ∈A and b∈B
Thus, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) / 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
A relation between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵
If 𝐴 is nonempty, any relation in 𝐴 × 𝐴 is called binary relation on 𝐴.
Function of Single Variable
Definition : A function (or mapping) f from a set A to set B ( f : A→B ) is a relation which associates
for each element x in A, a unique (exactly one) element y in B.
Then the element y is expressed as y = f (x) . y is the image of x under f.
Note : A is called the domain of f and B is called the co-domain of f.
Here 𝑥 is only independent variable and y is dependent variable.
We will study functions of several variables in next unit.
 𝑅3 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡
𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑅1 𝑖𝑠 ‘a’ is not mapped
𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. to unique element

𝑅2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡
𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Since d is not
associated with
any element.
 Sequence
Definition : Sequence is a function whose domain is set of natural numbers and codomain
a set of real numbers.
𝑛=∞
Sequence is denoted by 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎𝑛 ).
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑘 , ⋯
𝑎𝑘 denotes the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term of a sequence 𝑎𝑛 .
Examples :
1) 𝑎𝑛 = (1,2,3,4, ⋯ )
This sequence can also be written as 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛.
2) 𝑎𝑛 = (3,3,3,3, ⋯ ) is same as 𝑎𝑛 = 3.
 Convergent Sequence
𝑛=∞
Sequence 𝑢𝑛 𝑛=0 is convergent iff lim 𝑢𝑛 exist (finite).
𝑛→∞
Divergent Sequence
𝑛=∞
Sequence 𝑢𝑛 𝑛=0 is divergent iff lim 𝑢𝑛 = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑛→∞
Oscillatory sequence.
𝑛=∞
Sequence 𝑢𝑛 𝑛=0 is oscillatory iff lim 𝑢𝑛 is not unique.
𝑛→∞
(i.e. alternates between two or more values, without converging to a single limit)
Eg.
1) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 is divergent sequence as lim 𝑛 = ∞
𝑛→∞
2) 𝑎𝑛 = 3 is convergent sequence as lim 𝑛 = 3 .
𝑛→∞
2) 𝑎𝑛 = −1 𝑛 is oscillatory sequence as lim −1 𝑛 is not unique.
𝑛→∞
 Limits of Some Standard Sequences
1
lim = 0,k> 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑘

lim 𝑛𝑘 = ∞ , k > 0
𝑛→∞
1 1
Eg. lim = 0 , lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑝 𝑛
Note : This is very useful for computing limits of the form 𝑙𝑖𝑚 where p(n) and q(n) are polynomials in n.
𝑛→∞ 𝑞 𝑛

lim 𝑟 𝑛 = 0 provided −1 < 𝑟 < 1

𝑛→∞

𝑥 𝑛
lim 1 + = 𝑒 𝑥 for any x ∈ 𝑅
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

1 𝑛 1 𝑛 1
Eg. lim 1 + = 𝑒 , lim 1 − =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑒
 Infinite Series
Definition : Let 𝑢𝑛 be sequence of real numbers .An expression of the form
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +. . . . +𝑢𝑛 +. . . . ≡ σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is called infinite series.

Sequence of partial sum:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +. . . . +𝑢𝑛 is called Sequence of partial sum.

Convergent Series: A series σ∞

𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be convergent if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆 (Finite) exist. (Sum of the series
𝑛→∞
exist).

Divergent Series: A series σ∞

𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be divergent if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 does not exist. (Sum of the series does
𝑛→∞
not exist).

Oscillatory Series: A series σ∞

𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be oscillatory if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 is not unique.
𝑛→∞
 Important Theorem
Statement: If σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞

Converse is not true. If lim un = 0 then σ∞

n=1 un may or may not be convergent .
n→∞

1 1
Example : 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0 but σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 is not convergent . (we will see reason later)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Note : If 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒖𝒏 ≠ 𝟎 then σ∞

𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is divergent .
𝒏→∞

Example : 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛2 = ∞ ≠ 0 . So, σ∞ 2

n=1 n is divergent.
𝑛→∞

Note: Nature of the series remains unchanged if finite numbers of terms are added or finite
numbers of terms are omitted from an infinite series.
 Examples
Discuss the convergence of following Series.
1
σcos( )
𝑛
1 −𝑛
σ 1+
𝑛
Find 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the series and discuss about the convergence.
1 2 3 4
+ + + +⋯
2 3 4 5
1 1 1
+ + + …
2+1 3+ 2 4+ 3
Find the first 5 partial sums for the following series σ𝑢𝑛 if 𝑢𝑛 is given by
1 𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛+1
1) 𝑢𝑛 = 2) 𝑢𝑛 = cos 3) 𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛 2 𝑛−1 !
 Two Important Series
1. Geometric Series
The series given by σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑟 is called geometric series.
Sequence of partial sum is given by
2 𝑛−1
1 − 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟 = Sum of n terms of G. P.
1−𝑟
Result:
The geometric series σ∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟 + ⋯ is
1) Convergent if 𝑟 < 1 i.e. −1 < 𝑟 < 1
2) Divergent if 𝑟 ≥ 1
3) Oscillatory if 𝑟 ≤ −1
1
σ∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟 + ⋯ = provided −1 < 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
 p-Series
2. P-series:
1
The series of the form σ∞
𝑛=1 is called p-series where 𝑝 is positive real number.
𝑛𝑝

1
σ∞
𝑛=1 is convergent if 𝑝 > 1
𝑛𝑝
1
σ∞
𝑛=1 is divergent if 𝑝 ≤ 1
𝑛𝑝
1 1
Examples : σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 is divergent σ∞
𝑛=1 is convergent
𝑛2

1 1
σ∞
𝑛=1 is divergent σ∞
𝑛=1 3 is convergent
𝑛
𝑛2
 Tests for Convergence
To discuss the Convergence or divergence of the series of positive terms σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 .

We will discuss following tests for convergence.

Comparison Test
Direct Comparison test
Limit Comparison test
D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
 Comparison test
Comparison test (First Form)
Also known as ‘ Direct Comparison Test ’.
Statement:
Let σ𝑢𝑛 and σ𝑣𝑛 are two series of positive real numbers such that
𝑢𝑛 ≤ 𝑣𝑛 for all values of n
Case 1 : If σ 𝑣𝑛 is convergent then σ 𝑢𝑛 is also convergent.
Case 2 : If σ 𝑢𝑛 is divergent then σ 𝑣𝑛 is also divergent.
 Examples
1
Example 1 : Is σ convergent ?
3𝑛 +𝑛

Solution : We will use Direct comparison test here.

1
Here 𝑢𝑛 =
3𝑛 +𝑛
1
Consider 𝑣𝑛 =
3𝑛

Note that 3𝑛 ≤ 3𝑛 + 𝑛
1 1
Thus, ≤
3𝑛 +𝑛 3𝑛

𝑢𝑛 𝑣𝑛
1 𝑛 1
σ𝑣𝑛 = σ is convergent (Geometric series with r = < 1 )
3 3
1
So, By Comparison test given series σ is also convergent .
3𝑛 +𝑛
 Comparison test (Limit form)
𝑢𝑛
If σ∞ ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 & σ𝒏=𝟏 𝒗𝒏 are two series of positive terms such that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 is finite and non-zero then
𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛

If σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒗𝒏 is convergent series then σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is also convergent series.

If σ∞ ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒗𝒏 is divergent series then σ𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is also divergent series.

If 𝑢𝑛 contains the powers of n only, which may be positive, negative or integral or fractional then
we use Limit Comparison Test.

𝑛𝑝 1
Take 𝑣𝑛 = = where p & q are highest indices of n in the numerator and denominator
𝑛𝑞 𝑛𝑞−𝑝
respectively of 𝑢𝑛 and then using p-Test for 𝑣𝑛 we can discuss the convergence and divergence of 𝑢𝑛 .
 2 3 4 5 𝑛+1
Example 1: Test for convergence of + + + + ⋯…+ +⋯
1 8 27 64 𝑛3
Solution :
2 3 4 𝑛+1
Here, σ𝑢𝑛 = + + + ⋯…+ +⋯
1 8 27 𝑛3
𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛3
Step 1 :
highest power of 𝑛 in Numerator of 𝑢𝑛
Choose, 𝑣𝑛 =
highest power of 𝑛 in Denominator of 𝑢𝑛
n 1
𝑣n = n3 = n2
Step 2 :
𝑛+1 1
𝑢 𝑛3 𝑛+1 𝑛3 𝑛+1 𝑛(1+ ) 1
We find L = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛 = lim 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛3 × = lim 𝑛 = lim 𝑛
= lim 1 + 𝑛 = 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞
𝑛3
Taking limit as n → ∞, we get limit is 1 which is finite and non-zero.
σun and σvn converge or diverge together.

Step 3 :
1
But σ𝑣Ǘn = σ n2
 1
Comparing with the P -series σ , we get
nP
𝑃=2>1
∴ σ𝑣𝑛 is convergent.
∴ σ𝑢𝑛 is convergent by the comparison test.
 ∞ 𝑛2 −1
Example 2: Test for convergence of σ𝑛=1 2
5𝑛 +6𝑛−3
Solution :
𝑛2 −1
Here, σ𝑢𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=1 5𝑛2 +6𝑛−3

𝑛2 − 1
𝑢𝑛 = 2
5𝑛 + 6𝑛 − 3
Step 1 :
highest power of 𝑛 in Numerator of 𝑢𝑛
Choose, 𝑣𝑛 =
highest power of 𝑛 in Denominator of 𝑢𝑛
n2 n 1
𝑣n = n2
= n2 = 𝑛
Step 2 :
We find L=
𝑛2 − 1
𝑢𝑛 2
lim𝑛→∞ = lim𝑛→∞ 5𝑛 + 6𝑛 − 3
𝑣𝑛 1
𝑛
𝑛2 − 1 𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ 2 ×
5𝑛 + 6𝑛 − 3 1
 1
𝑛2 1− 2 𝑛
𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ ×
5𝑛2 +6𝑛−3 1
1
𝑛2 1− 2 ×𝑛
𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞
5𝑛2 +6𝑛−3

1 1
𝑛2 1− 2 1− 2 1−0 1
𝑛 𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ 6 3 = lim𝑛→∞ 6 3 = 5+0−0 = 5
𝑛2 (5+ − 2 ) 5+ − 2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

1
Taking limit as n → ∞, we get limit is 5 which is finite and non-zero.
σun and σvn converge or diverge together.
Step 3 :
1
But σ𝑣n = σ 𝑛
1
Comparing with the P -series σ nP , we get
𝑃=1≤1
∴ σ𝑣𝑛 is divergent.
∴ σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent by the comparison test.
 1
Example 3: Test for convergence of σ∞
𝑛=1 sin( ) 𝑛
Solution :
1
Here, σ𝑢𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=1 sin 𝑛
1
𝑢𝑛 = sin( )
𝑛
Step 1 :
1
Choose, 𝑣𝑛 =
𝑛
Step 2 :
1
𝑢 sin(𝑛)
We find L= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 = lim𝑛→∞ 1
𝑣𝑛
𝑛
1
Put =𝑥
𝑛
As 𝑛 → ∞ , 𝑥 → 0
Thus,
𝑢𝑛 sin(𝑥)
𝐿 = lim𝑛→∞ = limx→0 = 1 ≠ 0 ( 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝑣𝑛 𝑥
 ∴ σun and σvn converge or diverge together.
Step 3 :
1
But σ𝑣n = σ
𝑛
1
Comparing with the P -series σ , we get
nP
𝑃=1≤1
∴ σ𝑣𝑛 is divergent.
∴ σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent by the comparison test.
 Problems for Practice : Test the Convergence or divergence of the following series.

1
𝑛 2
(2𝑛 −1)3
1. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛𝑠 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑛 2. σ∞
𝑛=1 1 𝐴𝑛𝑠 ∶ 𝐷𝑖𝑣
𝑛2 +1
(3𝑛3 +2𝑛+5)4

1 2 3 14 24 34
3. + + +. . . . . 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐷𝑖𝑣 4. + + +. . . . . 𝐴𝑛𝑠 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑛
23 33 43 13 23 33

1 3 5 1
5. + + +. . . . 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑜𝑛 6. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐷𝑖𝑣.
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 𝑛
1 𝑛(𝑛+1)
7. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑜𝑛 8. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛4 +1
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑜𝑛
𝑛(𝑛−1) 1
9. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐷𝑔𝑡 10. σ∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑜𝑛
𝑛2 +2𝑛−1 𝑛3 −𝑛2 +𝑛+3
 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
Form 1
𝑢𝑛+1
If σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is series of positive terms and if 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 then
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛

Case 1) If 𝑙 < 1 then σ∞

𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is convergent.

Case 2) If 𝑙 > 1 then σ∞

𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is divergent.

Case 3) If 𝑙 = 1 then Ratio test false.

Important Note: We can use any of above form.

 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
Form 2
𝑢𝑛
If σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is series of positive terms and if L = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 then
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛+1

Case 1) If L > 1 then σ∞

𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is convergent.

Case 2) If L < 1 then σ∞

𝒏=𝟏 𝒖𝒏 is divergent.

Case 3) If L = 1 then Ratio test false.

 𝑛
∞ 2 𝑛!
Example 1: Test for convergence of series.σ𝑛=1 𝑛
𝑛

Solution:
2𝑛 𝑛!
Step 1: Consider, 𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛
Here un contains factorial term.
∴ We apply Ratio test.
2𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)!
𝑢𝑛+1 =
(𝑛+1)𝑛+1

Step 2 :
𝑢 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛+1 𝑛+1 ! 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 𝑛+1 . 𝑛!
lim 𝑛+1 = lim 𝑛 × = lim 𝑛 ×
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛! (𝑛+1)𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 2 . 𝑛! (𝑛+1)𝑛 . (𝑛+1)
 𝑢𝑛+1 2 (𝑛)𝑛 2 (𝑛)𝑛
𝐿= lim = lim = lim 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 (𝑛+1)𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛 1+ 1
𝑛

𝑛𝑛
= 2 . lim 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛 1+ 1
𝑛

1
= 2 . lim 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 1+ 1
𝑛

2
= < 1 … … ( 𝑒 > 2)
e
𝑢𝑛+1 2
As , 𝐿 = lim = <1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑒

∴ σ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent by D’Alembert’s Ratio test.

 22 32 42
Example 2 : Test for convergence of series 1 + 2!
+
3!
+
4!
+⋯

Solution:
Step 1: Consider series ,
∞
22 32 42 𝑛2
1+ + + +⋯= ෍ = ෍ 𝑢𝑛 say
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑛=1

Here un contains factorial term.

∴ We apply Ratio test.
(𝑛+1)2
𝑢𝑛+1 =
(𝑛+1)!
𝑢𝑛+1
So we find lim as follows.
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
Step 2 :
(𝑛+1)2
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑛+1 ! (𝑛+1)2 n! (𝑛+1)2 n!
𝐿= lim = lim 𝑛2
= lim × = lim × 2
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)! n2 𝑛→∞ n! .(𝑛+1) n
𝑛!
1
n+1 n 1+
n
= lim 2 = lim
𝑛→∞ n 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2
1
1+𝑛 1
= lim = 0 ……… 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑢𝑛+1
As, L = lim =0<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
By, D’Alembert’s Ratio Test,
Given series is Convergent.
 2 2⋅5 2⋅5⋅8
Example 3 : Test for convergence of series 9
+
9⋅13
+
9⋅13⋅17
+ ⋯
Solution:
2 2⋅5 2⋅5⋅8
Step 1: Consider series , σ𝑢𝑛 = + + + ⋯
9 9⋅13 9⋅13⋅17

To obtain 𝑛th term:

Observe that, In numerator, there is product of first 𝑛 terms of A.P. with 𝑎 = 2, 𝑑 = 3
In denominator, there is product of first 𝑛 terms of A.P. with 𝑎 = 9 𝑑 = 4.
For numerator, 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
t n = 2 + (𝑛 − 1)3
= 3𝑛 − 1
whereas for denominator,
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
= 9 + (𝑛 − 1)4
= 4𝑛 + 5
Thus,
2 2⋅5 2⋅5⋅8 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 8 ⋅ ⋯ (3𝑛 − 1)
+ + + ⋯+
9 9 ⋅ 13 9 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 17 9 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 17 ⋅ ⋯ (4𝑛 + 5)
∞
2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 8 ⋅ ⋯ (3𝑛 − 1)
=෍ = ෍ 𝑢𝑛 .
9 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 17 ⋅ ⋯ (4𝑛 + 5)
𝑛=1
 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛−1) 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3 𝑛+1 −1) 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛+2)
We have , 𝑢𝑛 = 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+5) and 𝑢𝑛+1 = 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4(𝑛+1)+5) = 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+9)
Step 3 :
2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛+2)
𝑢 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+9) 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛+2) 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+5)
𝐿= lim 𝑢𝑛+1 = lim 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛−1) = lim ×
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+9) 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛−1)
9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+5)
2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3n−1)(3𝑛+2) 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4𝑛+5)
= lim ×
𝑛→∞ 9⋅13⋅17⋅⋯(4n+5)(4𝑛+9) 2⋅5⋅8⋅⋯(3𝑛−1)
2
3n+2 n 3+
n
= lim 4n+9 = lim 9
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 4+
𝑛
2
3+ 3+0 3
𝑛
= lim 9 = 4+0 = 4
𝑛→∞ 4+
𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1 3
As, L = lim =4<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
By, D’Alembert’s Ratio Test,
Given series is Convergent.
 2𝑛+1
Example 4 : Test for convergence of series σ∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛+4
5𝑛

Solution:
Step 1: Consider series ,
∞
2𝑛 + 1 𝑛
෍ 5 = ෍ 𝑢𝑛 say
3𝑛 + 4
𝑛=1
2𝑛+1
Thus, 𝑢𝑛 = 5𝑛
3𝑛+4

Here un contains 𝑎𝑛 term.

∴ We will try to apply Ratio test.
2(𝑛+1)+1 𝑛+1 2𝑛+3 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 = 5 = 5
3(𝑛+1)+4 3𝑛+7
𝑢𝑛+1
So we find lim as follows.
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
Step 2 :
2𝑛+3 𝑛+1
𝑢 5 2𝑛+3 𝑛+1 3𝑛+4 1
𝐿= lim 𝑛+1 = lim 3𝑛+7
2𝑛+1 𝑛 = lim 5 × .
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 5 𝑛→∞ 3𝑛+7 2𝑛+1 5𝑛
3𝑛+4
2𝑛+3 3𝑛+4 5n+1
= lim × × n
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1 3𝑛+7 5
3 4
𝑛 2+ 𝑛 3+ 5n . 5
𝑛 𝑛
= lim 1 × 7 × n
𝑛→∞ 𝑛(2+𝑛) 𝑛 3+𝑛 5
3 4
2+ 3+ 5 2+0 3+0 5
𝑛 𝑛
= lim 1 × 7 × = =5>1
𝑛→∞ (2+ ) 3+ 1 (2+0)(3+0)(1)
𝑛 𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1
As, L = lim =5>1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
By, D’Alembert’s Ratio Test,
Given series is Divergent.
 Discuss the convergence and divergence of following series.

𝑛 2 4.7.10......(3𝑛+1) 3𝑛
1] σ∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛 2] σ∞
𝑛=1 3] σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛!
1.2.3.........𝑛

2𝑛 −1 𝑛3 +𝑎 2𝑛
4] σ∞
𝑛=1
∞
5] σ𝑛=1 𝑛 ∞
6] σ𝑛=1 3
3𝑛 −1 2 +𝑎 𝑛 +1

𝑛! 3𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛
7] σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛 8] σ∞
𝑛=1 2𝑛 9] σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛!

2.4.6…. 2𝑛 (𝑛−1)!
10] σ∞
𝑛=1 11] σ∞
𝑛=1
5.8.11… 3𝑛+2 𝑛3

Answers:
Convergent Series - 1,3,4,5,7,8,10.
Divergent series – 2,6,9,11.
 Alternating Series
Alternating Series:

σ∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +. . . . . . . is called alternating series

Leibnitz test: An alternating series σ∞

𝒏=𝟏(−𝟏)
𝒏−𝟏
𝒖𝒏 is convergent if

𝑈1 > 𝑢2 > 𝑢3 > 𝑢4 i.e. 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 for all values of n.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞
 Power Series
A power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form
∞
𝑛 2
෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑐 + 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑐 +⋯
𝑛=0
where 𝑎𝑛 represents the coefficient of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and c is a constant.
Note:
The coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , … are independent of 𝑥.
If 𝑐 = 0 then series becomes
∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯
𝑛=0
 Radius of Convergence
Result : For a given power series σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) , there are only three possibilities:
(i) The series converges only when 𝑥 = 𝑎.
(ii) The series converges for all 𝑥.
(iii) There is a positive number 𝑅 such that the series converges if |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
and diverges if |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅.
The number 𝑅 in case (iii) is called the radius of convergence of the power series.
By convention, the radius of convergence is 𝑅 = 0 in case (i) and 𝑅 = ∞ in case (ii).
The interval of convergence of a power series is the interval that consists of all values of 𝑥
for which the series converges and diverges for value of 𝑥 outside this interval.
In case (ii) the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).
When 𝑥 is an endpoint of the interval, anything can happen-the series might converge
at one or both endpoints or it might diverge at both endpoints.
 Radius of Convergence

To determine range of convergence of power series we will use ratio test.

Consider power series

∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑐 + 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑐 2 +⋯
𝑛=0

We have 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 ⇒ 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛+1

𝑢𝑛 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥−𝑐)𝑛 𝑎𝑛 1
Consider lim = lim = lim = 𝐿 (say)
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑥−𝑐
 𝑎𝑛
Let lim𝑛→∞ =𝑀
𝑎𝑛+1

𝑢𝑛 1
∴ lim𝑛→∞ =𝐿=𝑀
𝑢𝑛+1 |𝑥−𝑐|

By D’Alembert’s Ratio test

𝑀
Case 1: If 𝐿 > 1 i.e. > 1 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝑀 then series is convergent.
|𝑥−𝑐|
𝑀
Case 2 : If 𝐿 < 1 i.e. < 1 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑐| > 𝑀 then series is divergent.
|𝑥−𝑐|

Thus,
Thus the range of convergence for the power series is |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝑀
⇒ −M < 𝑥 − c < M
⇒c−M<𝑥 <c+M
Here 𝑀 is called the radius of convergence and 𝑐 is the center of convergence.
Note: If 𝐿 = 1 then series may or may not converge.
 Examples
(1) Test for convergence of the series
3 2 4 3 𝑛+1 𝑛
2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ … + 𝑥 +⋯ x∈𝑅
8 27 𝑛3
Solution:
𝑛+1 𝑛
Step 1: Here, 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑛3
𝑛+1+1 𝑛+2
Step 2: 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 = 𝑥 𝑛+1
(𝑛+1)3 (𝑛+1)3
𝑛+2
𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 +1 (𝑛+1)3
Step 3: L = lim𝑛→∞ = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑢𝑛 𝑥
n3

𝑛+2 (𝑛)3
= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥 𝑛+1 ×
(𝑛+1)3 𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛

𝑛+2 (𝑛)3
= lim𝑛→∞ ×𝑥 ×
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 3

2
𝑛(1+𝑛) n3
= lim𝑛→∞ 1 × 1 𝑥
𝑛 1+𝑛 n3 (1+𝑛)3
 1+0 1
𝐿= × 𝑥 = 𝑥
1+0 1+0 3

limit as n → ∞, we get limit is 𝑥

𝑢𝑛 +1
Step 4 : By Ratio test ,σ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent ,if lim𝑛→∞ < 1,
𝑢𝑛

i.e. for 𝑥 < 1 then σun is convergent.

𝑢 +1
σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent ,if lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 >1
𝑢𝑛

i.e. for 𝑥 > 1 then σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent.

σun is convergent for x < 1 and divergent for |x| > 1.
 Examples
(2) Test for convergence of the series
𝑥2 𝑥3
1+𝑥+ + +⋯ x∈𝑅
2! 3!
Solution:
𝑥𝑛
Step 1: Here, 𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛!
𝑥 𝑛+1
Step 2: 𝑢𝑛+1 =
(𝑛+1)!
𝑥𝑛+1
𝑢 +1 (𝑛+1)! 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑛!
Step 3: L= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ × 𝑛
𝑢𝑛 (𝑛+1)! 𝑥
𝑛!

n!
= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥 ×
𝑛! .(𝑛+1)
1
= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥
𝑛+1
1
= 𝑥 . lim𝑛→∞ = 𝑥 ×0=0
𝑛+1
 Taking limit as n → ∞, we get limit as 0
𝑢𝑛 +1
Step 4 : By Ratio test ,σ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent ,if L = lim𝑛→∞ < 1,
𝑢𝑛

Here , 𝐿 = 0 < 1thus σun is convergent for all 𝑥.

( Since limit L does not depend on x)
σun is convergent for all values of 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 .
 Examples
(3) Test for convergence of the series
𝑥𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1
𝑥+𝑛
Solution:
𝑥𝑛
Step 1: Here, 𝑢𝑛 =
𝑥+𝑛
1
Step 2: 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑥+𝑛+1
1
𝑢𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛+1 1 x+n
Step 3: L = lim𝑛→∞ = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥+𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ 𝑥 𝑛+1 ×
𝑢𝑛 𝑥+𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛
𝑥+𝑛

𝑥+𝑛
= lim𝑛→∞ ×𝑥
𝑥+𝑛+1
x
𝑛(1+𝑛)
= 𝑥 . lim𝑛→∞ 1 𝑥
𝑛 1+𝑛+𝑛
 x
(1+ ) 1+0
𝑛
𝐿 = 𝑥 . lim𝑛→∞ 1 𝑥 = 𝑥. 1+0+0
= |𝑥|
1+ +
𝑛 𝑛

Taking limit as n → ∞, we get limit is 𝑥

𝑢𝑛 +1
Step 4 : By Ratio test ,σ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent ,if lim𝑛→∞ < 1,
𝑢𝑛

i.e. for 𝑥 < 1 then σun is convergent.

𝑢 +1
σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent ,if lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑢 >1
𝑛

i.e. for 𝑥 > 1 then σ𝑢𝑛 is divergent.

σun is convergent for x < 1 and divergent for |x| > 1.
Problems for Practice :Test the Convergence of the following series.

𝑥 𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛4 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1, 𝑑𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1

1 + 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 3 +. . . . . 𝐴𝑛𝑠: Cgt if 𝑥 < 1,dgt if 𝑥 > 1

1 9 25 5
𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑛𝑠 ∶ Cgt if 𝑥 < 2 , 𝑑𝑔𝑡 if 𝑥 > 2
2 8 32
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
1+ + + +. . . . 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1, 𝑑𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
22 32 42
(𝑛+1)𝑥 𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1, 𝑑𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
𝑛2
(𝑥−3) 𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 2 < 𝑥 < 4 and 𝐷𝑔𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 2
𝑛
𝑥 2𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1 4 𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑠: Cgt if 𝑥 < 2 , 𝑑𝑔𝑡 if 𝑥 > 2
Remember This
 Taylor’s Theorem
Statement: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ] such that
i ) 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), … 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) be continuous in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ].
ii) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) exists, ∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ). Then there exist at least one number 𝜃(0 < 𝜃 < 1) such that
ℎ 2 ℎ 𝑛−1
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) + 𝑅𝑛
2! (𝑛 − 1)!
where 𝑅𝑛 is the remainder after 𝑛 terms and is given by
ℎ𝑛 𝑛
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ)
𝑛!
Taylor’s Series:
If the remainder 𝑅𝑛 → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞ then the Taylor's theorem assumes the form of Taylor's
series and it is given by

′ ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛 (𝑛)
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯+ 𝑓 (𝑎) +⋯
2! 𝑛!
Other Forms of Taylor’s Series:
Series in powers of (𝑥 − 𝑎) OR Series about point 𝑎.
Replace ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑎 in above form of Taylor’s series.
(𝑥−𝑎) ′ (𝑥−𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥−𝑎)3 ′′′ (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛 (𝑛)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)+. . . + 𝑓 (𝑎)+. . .
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

Here the expansion is in ascending powers of 𝑥 − a. or the expansion at 𝑥 = a.

 Examples
Eg. (1) Express 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7 in terms of (x − 2)
Solution: Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7

By Taylor’s Series

′ (𝑥−𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑓𝑛 𝑎 +⋯
2! 𝑛!

Put a = 2 to get series in terms of (𝑥 − 2)

2 3
′
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 2 + 𝑥−2 𝑓 2 + 𝑓 ′′ 2 + 𝑓 ′′′ 2 + ⋯ (1)
2! 3!
Now we will calculate values of 𝑓 2 , 𝑓 ′ 2 , 𝑓 ′′ 2 , 𝑓 ′′′ 2 𝑒𝑡𝑐
 Examples Continued
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7 ; f(2)= 19

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 ; 𝑓 ′ 2 = 28

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 + 6 ; 𝑓 ′′ 2 = 30

𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 12 ; 𝑓 ′′′ 2 = 12

𝑓 ′′′′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 5 𝑥 = ⋯ = 0

Putting the values in (1)

2 3
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 = 19 + 28 𝑥 − 2 + 30 + 12 +0+⋯
2! 3!
2 3
𝑓 𝑥 = 19 + 28(𝑥 − 2) + 15 𝑥 − 2 +2 𝑥−2
 Examples Continued
Eg. (2) Expand 7 + (𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2)4 − (𝑥 + 2)5 in powers of 𝑥 using Taylor's
theorem
Solution: Since we have to expand in powers of 𝑥, the given function is 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ).
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 7 + (𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2)4 − (𝑥 + 2)5 … … … (1)
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 = 7 + 𝑥 + 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5 , ℎ = 2
Thus,
𝑓(ℎ) = 7 + ℎ + 3ℎ3 + ℎ4 − ℎ5 ∴ 𝑓(2) = 17
𝑓 ′ (ℎ) = 1 + 9ℎ2 + 4ℎ3 − 5ℎ4 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (2) = −11
𝑓 ′′ (ℎ) = 18ℎ + 12ℎ2 − 20ℎ3 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (2) = −76
𝑓 ′′′ (ℎ) = 18 + 24ℎ − 60ℎ2 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (2) = −174
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 ℎ = 24 − 120ℎ ∴ f (iv) (2) = −216
f 𝑣 ( h) = −120 ∴ f (v) (2) = −120
 Examples Continued
∴ By Taylor's Theorem,
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑣 𝑥5 𝑉
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(ℎ) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (ℎ)
+ 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ)
2! 3! 4! 5!
′
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑣 𝑥5 𝑣
= 𝑓(2) + 𝑥𝑓 (2) + 𝑓 (2) + 𝑓 (2) + 𝑓 (2) + 𝑓 (2)
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 17 − 11𝑥 + (−76) + (−174) + (−216) + (−120)
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = 17 − 11𝑥 − 38𝑥 2 − 29𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5 … … … … (2)
By (1) and (2)
7 + (𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2)4 − (𝑥 + 2)5 = 17 − 11𝑥 − 38𝑥 2 − 29𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5
 Problems For Practice
Q.1) Express 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 in ascending powers of (𝑥 − 2)

Q.2) Express 𝑓 𝑥 = 49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 in powers of (𝑥 + 2)

Q.3) Expand 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 in powers of (𝑥 − 3)

Q.4) Expand 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 in powers of (𝑥 + 2)

2 3
Answers: 1) 40 + 53(𝑥 − 2) + 19 𝑥 − 2 +2 𝑥−2

2) 7 + (𝑥 + 2) + 3 𝑥 + 2 3 + 𝑥+2 4

3) 16 + 38(𝑥 − 3) + 29(𝑥 − 3)2 + 9(𝑥 − 3)3 + (𝑥 − 3)4

4) −38 + 45(𝑥 + 2) − 20(𝑥 + 2)2 + 3(𝑥 + 2)3

 Examples Continued
1 1 𝑥+2 (𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+2)3
Eg. (3) Prove that = + 2 + + 4 +⋯
1−𝑥 3 3 33 3

1
Solution : Let f ( x ) =
1−𝑥

By Taylor’s Series

(𝑥−𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 ′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑓𝑛 𝑎 +⋯
2! 𝑛!

Put 𝑎 = − 2

𝑥+2 2 ′′ 𝑥+2 3 ′′′

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −2 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑓′ −2 + 𝑓 −2 + 𝑓 −2 + ⋯ (1)
2! 3!

Now we will calculate values of 𝑓 −2 , 𝑓 ′ −2 , 𝑓 ′′ −2 , 𝑓 ′′′ −2 𝑒𝑡𝑐

 Examples Continued
1 1
𝑓 𝑥 = ; 𝑓(− 2) =
1−𝑥 3
1 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = ; 𝑓 ′ −2 =
1−𝑥 2 32
2 2!
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = ; 𝑓 ′′ −2 = 3
1−𝑥 3 3
2.3 3!
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = ; 𝑓 ′′′ −2 =
1−𝑥 4 34
2.3.4 4!
𝑓 (4) 𝑥 = ; 𝑓 (4) −2 =
1−𝑥 5 35

Putting the values in (1) , we get

1 1 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 + 2)3
= + 2 + + +⋯
1−𝑥 3 3 33 34
 Examples Continued
Eg. (4) Expand log ( cos 𝑥 ) about 𝜋3 using Taylor's expansion.
𝜋
Solution : Let f ( x ) =log ( cos 𝑥 ) , 𝑎 =
3

By Taylor′s theorem ,

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3
f x = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑓′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑎 + ⋯
2! 3!

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 2 ′′ 𝜋 1 𝜋 3 ′′′ 𝜋
=𝑓 + 𝑥− 𝑓′ + 𝑥− 𝑓 + 𝑥− 𝑓 +⋯
3 3 3 2! 3 3 3! 3 3

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
We find 𝑓 , 𝑓′ , 𝑓 ′′ , 𝑓 ′′′ and substitute in above equation.
3 3 3 3

𝜋 𝜋
f x = log cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 = log cos = −log 2
3 3
 Examples Continued
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓′ 𝑥 = −sin𝑥 = − tan 𝑥 , 𝑓′ = −tan =− 3
cos 𝑥 3 3
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −sec 2 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ = −sec 2 = −4
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −2 sec 2 𝑥 . tan 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ = −2sec 2 tan = −8 3
3 3 3

Substituting these values in Equation (I)

𝜋 1 𝜋 2 1 𝜋 3
𝑓 𝑥 = −log 2 + 𝑥 − (− 3) + 𝑥− (−4) + 𝑥− (−8 3) + ⋯
3 2! 3 3! 3
𝜋 𝜋 2 4 3 𝜋 3
𝑓 𝑥 = log(cos x) = −log 2 − 3 𝑥 − −2 𝑥− − 𝑥− +⋯
3 3 3 3
 Examples Continued
Eg. (5) Using Taylor's theorem, obtain the value of tan−1 (1.003) upto five decimal places.

Solution : Here,
f x + h = tan−1 x + h ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥

By Taylor′s theorem ,
ℎ 2 ℎ 3
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯ (1)
2! 3!
Putting x = 1, h = 0.003 in Equation (1)

∴ f x + h = tan−1 x + h = tan−1 (1 + 0.003)

 Examples Continued
−1 −1
𝜋
f x = tan x ∴ f 1 = tan (1) =
4
′
1 ′
1
𝑓 𝑥 = ∴ f (1) =
1 + x2 2
′′
2x ′′
1
f x =− ∴ f (1) = −
1 + x2 2 2
1 + x 2 2 (−2) + 2x ⋅ 2 1 + x 2 (2x) 1
f ′′′ x = ′′′
∴ f (1) =
1 + x2 4 2

(0.003) 2 (0.003) 3
∴ f(x + h) =) = tan−1 (1 + 0.003) = f(1) + 0.003f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + f ′′′ (1) + ⋯
2! 3!
𝜋 1 (0.003) 2 1 (0.003) 3 1
∴ tan−1 (1.003) = + (0.003) + − +
4 2 2! 2 3! 2
𝜋
= + 0.00015 − 2.25 × 10−8 + 2.25 × 10−12 = 0.78540
4
Eg. (6) Using Taylor’s Theorem evaluate 25.15 up to 4 decimals

Let f ( x ) = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = 𝑥 + ℎ

By Taylor’s Theorem

ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ =𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑓𝑛 𝑥 +⋯
2! 𝑛!

Put 𝑥 = 25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.15

∴ 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = 𝑥 + ℎ = 25 + 0.15

(0.15)2 ′′
25.15 = 𝑓 25 + (0.15)𝑓 ′ 25 + 𝑓 25 + ⋯ ---------------- (1)
2!

Now we will calculate values of 𝑓 25 , 𝑓 ′ 25 , 𝑓 ′′ 25 𝑒𝑡𝑐

 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ; 𝑓(25) = 5
1 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = ; 𝑓 ′ 25 = = 0.1
2 𝑥 10
1 1 1 −1
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = − ; 𝑓 ′′ 25 = = −0.002
2 2 𝑥 3/2 500

Putting the values in (1) and considering the first only three values.

0.15 2
25.15 = 5 + 0.15 (0.1) + (−0.002) +⋯
2!

25.15 = 5.0150 (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦. )

 Problems for Practice
Q.1) Using Taylor's theorem, find sin 30∘ 30′
Q.2) Expand tan-1 x in powers of 𝑥 − 1
𝜋
Q.3) Expand cos x in powers of x − 2 .
𝜋
Q.4) Expand tan x in powers of x − 4

𝜋 4𝑥 3 4𝑥 5
Q.5) Using Taylor’s theorem Prove that: log tan + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 3 + 3 +⋯
4
𝜋
Q.6) Expand log cos 𝑥 + 4 using Taylor's theorem in ascending powers of 𝑥 and hence find the value of
log(cos 48∘ ) correct upto four decimal places.

Answers
1)0.50735 6) −0.4017
𝜋 1 1 1
2) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = + 𝑥 − 1 − (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 +. . . .
4 2 4 12

𝜋 1 𝜋 3 1 𝜋 5
3) cos 𝑥 = − 𝑥 − + 𝑥− − 𝑥− +⋯
2 3! 2 5! 2

𝜋 𝜋 2
4) tan 𝑥 = 1 + 2 𝑥 − +2 𝑥− +⋯
4 2
 Maclaurin's Theorem
It is a special case of Taylor's theorem when a = 0.
Thus putting a = 0 and h = x in Taylor's theorem, we get
𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑥𝑓 ′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′′ 0 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛 0
2! 3! 𝑛!
Now we will study standard series of popular functions.
 Illustration
Expand by Maclaurin’s Theorem the following;
1]𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2] 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 3] 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
As an illustration ,Let us find Maclaurin’s for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

f(x) = sin 𝑥 f(0) =0

f ′ (x) = cos 𝑥 f ′ (0) =1
f ′′ (x) = −sin 𝑥 f ′′ (0) =0
f ′′′ (x) = −cos 𝑥 f ′′′ (0) = −1
By Maclaurin's theorem we have
𝑥 2 𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯
2! 3!
Substituting all the values we get,
𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + + ⋯
3! 5!
Similarly we can find Maclaurin's series of all standard functions. List is given on next page
 Standard Series
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥9
1] ex=1 + + + +⋯ 2] 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + ...−
1! 2! 3! 3! 5! 7! 9!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥3 2 5 17 7
3] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 1 − + − +. . . 4]𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +. . .
2! 4! 6! 3 15 315

𝑥3 3𝑥 5 𝜋 𝑥3 3𝑥 5
5] 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑥+ + +. . . 6] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = − 𝑥+ + +. . .
6 40 2 6 40

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
7] tan-1x =𝑥− + − +. . .
3 5 7
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
8]𝑙𝑜𝑔( 1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +. . . 9]𝑙𝑜𝑔( 1 − 𝑥) = −𝑥 − − − ...
2 3 4 2 3 4
1 1
10] = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 +. . . 11] = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 +. . .
1−𝑥 1+𝑥
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
12] (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 < 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
2! 3!
 Examples
(1) Find Maclaurin’s series of 𝑒 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 upto 𝑥 5
Solution : We can find Maclaurin’s series by two ways.
Method I : We use Maclaurin’s theorem.
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 0 + 𝑥𝑓 ′ 0 + 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 +⋯ (I)
2! 3!

f x = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ∴ f 0 = e0 sin 0 = 0
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ) ∴ f ′ (0) = 𝑒 0 0 + 1 = 1
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 ∴ f ′′ 0 = 2𝑒 0 cos 0 = 2
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) ∴ f ′′′ 0 = 2𝑒 0 cos 0 − sin 0 = 2
𝑓 (𝑖𝑣) 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) + − sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 (−2 sin 𝑥) = −4𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑓 (𝑖𝑣) 0 = 0
 Examples
𝑓 (𝑣) 𝑥 = −4𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ) ∴ f (𝑣) 0 = −4𝑒 0 0 + 1 = −4
Substituting values in equation (I) ,
2 2 2 3 0 4 −4 5
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 0 + 1 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
3 5
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + − +⋯
3 30
 Examples
Method II : Use of Standard Expansions
To find Maclaurin’s series of f x = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , we multiply two series.
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
As ex=1 + + + + + +⋯ and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +. . .
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 3! 5! 7!

Thus, f x = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
= 1+ + + + + +⋯ 𝑥− + − +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 3! 5! 7!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
= 1 𝑥− 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+⋯ + 1!
𝑥− 3!
+ 5!
− 7! +⋯
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
+ 𝑥− + − +⋯ + 𝑥− + − +⋯
2! 3! 5! 7! 3! 3! 5! 7!
𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥5 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
+ 𝑥− + − +⋯ + 𝑥− + − +⋯
4! 3! 5! 7! 5! 3! 5! 7!
 Examples
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 4
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥− + + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 +
3! 5! 6
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥4
2
− 12
+ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 + 6
+ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥

𝑥5
+ 24
+ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 + (ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 4
𝑥 3
𝑥 5
𝑥 4
𝑥 5
∴𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥− + + 𝑥2 − + − + + + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
6 120 6 2 12 6 24
2 3
1 1 4
1 1 5
1 1 1
∴𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥+𝑥 +𝑥 − + +𝑥 − +𝑥 − + + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
6 2 6 6 120 12 24
1 4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 0 + 𝑥5 − + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
3 120
3 5
𝑥 𝑥
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + − +⋯
3 30
 Examples
(2) Expand by Maclaurin's theorem log (1 + sin 𝑥)
Solution :
We use Maclaurin’s theorem.
′
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!
f x = log 1 + sin x ∴ f 0 = log1 = 0
cos 𝑥 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = ∴ f ′ (0) = =1
1+sin 𝑥 1+0
1+sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 −cos 𝑥⋅cos 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 −sin 𝑥−cos2 𝑥 −1 −sin 𝑥 − 1+sin 𝑥 −1
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = = = = =
1+sin 𝑥 2 1+sin 𝑥 2 1+sin 𝑥 2 1+sin 𝑥 2 1+sin 𝑥
−1
∴ f ′′ 0 = =−1
1+0

cos x 1
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = ∴ f ′′ 0 = = 1
(1+sin x)2 1+0 2
(1+sin 𝑥)2 (−sin 𝑥)−cos2 𝑥.2 (1+sin 𝑥) 1+0 2 −0 −1.2.(1+0)
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑥 = ∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 0 = = −2
(1+sin 𝑥)4 1+0 4
 Examples
Thus by Maclaurin’s Theorem ,
′
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!
Substituting the values of 𝑓(0), 𝑓 ′ (0), 𝑓 ′′ (0), f ′′′ (0), f jv (0) … in Maclaurin's theorem.
x2 x3 x4
f x = 0+. (1) + (−1) + (1) + −2
2! 3! 4!
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
f(x) = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
2 6 12
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
∴ log( 1 + sin 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − + − + …
2 6 12
 Examples
𝑥2 𝑥3 3𝑥 4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 3𝑥 8
(3) Show that log 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 𝑥 + + − + + + − +⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Solution :
Consider ,
1−𝑥 4
log 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = log = log 1 − 𝑥 4 − log 1 − 𝑥
1−𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 𝑥8
We know that , 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 1 − 𝑥) = −𝑥 − − − − − − − −. . .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑥8 𝑥 12
log 1 − 𝑥 4 = −𝑥 4 − − − …
2 3
log 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 = log 1 − 𝑥 4 − log 1 − 𝑥
4 𝑥8 𝑥 12 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 𝑥8
= −𝑥 − − − … − −𝑥 − − − − − − − −⋯
2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑥8
𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 𝑥8
= −𝑥 4 − + 𝑥 + + + + + + + + ⋯
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 Examples
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥 4 𝑥 5 𝑥 6 𝑥 7 𝑥 8 𝑥 8
= 𝑥 + + − 𝑥4 + + + + − + + ⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 8
𝑥 2 𝑥 3 3𝑥 4 𝑥 5 𝑥 6 𝑥 7 3𝑥 8
log(1 + x + x 2 + x 3 ) = 𝑥 + + − + + + − + ⋯…
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Method 2 :
log 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 = log 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥
= log[ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥)]
= log[ 1 + 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 ]
= log(1 + 𝑥) + log 1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
Then use this formula 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +. . .
2 3 4
 Examples
1+𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
(4) Show that log = log 2 + − + +⋯
𝑒𝑥 2 12 45
Solution :
Consider ,
1 + 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦 = log
𝑒𝑥
Dividing Numerator and denominator by 𝑒 𝑥
1 + 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = log = log( )
𝑒𝑥 1
𝑒𝑥
x2 x3 x4
We know that, ex =1+x+ + + …
2! 3! 4!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
And 𝑒 −𝑥 =1−𝑥+ − + −⋯
2! 3! 4!
 Examples
𝑥2 𝑥4
∴ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2(1 + + + ⋯)
2! 4!
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥4
Thus , 𝑦 = log 𝑒 + 𝑒 = log 2 1 + 2!
+ 4!
+⋯

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
𝑦 = log 2 + log 1 + + + +⋯
2! 4! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
We use 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +. . .
2 3 4
2 3
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 1 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 1 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
∴ 𝑦 = log 2 + + + +⋯ − + + +⋯ + + + +⋯ +⋯
2! 4! 6! 2 2! 4! 6! 3 2! 4! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 1 𝑥4 𝑥6 1 𝑥6
y = log 2 + + + + ⋯− + … + …
2 24 720 2 4 24 3 8
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥6 𝑥6
= log 2 + + − + − + +⋯
2 24 8 720 48 24
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
= log 2 + − + +⋯
2 12 45
 Examples
1 5 3
(5) Use Maclaurin’s Series to show that (1 + 𝑥) 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5 + ⋯
2 6 4
Solution :
Let 𝑦 = ( 1 + 𝑥)𝑥

∴ log 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 1 + 𝑥 … … (1)

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
= 𝑥 𝑥− + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
= 𝑥2 − + − + − ⋯ = 𝑧 say … … … (2)
2 3 4 5

By (1), 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 log(1+𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑧
 Examples

But 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧

Using Maclaurin’s series of 𝑒 𝑧

𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑦 =1+𝑧+ 2!
+ 3!
+⋯

Replacing 𝑧 from (2)

2
2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 1 2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
𝑦 =1+( 𝑥 −2 + − + − ⋯)+2 𝑥 −2 + − + −⋯ +⋯
3 4 5 3 4 5

2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 1 1
= 1+𝑥 − + − + 2 𝑥 4 − 2 𝑥 5 + 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
2 3 4

1 5 3
= 1 + 𝑥2 − 2 𝑥3 + 6 𝑥4 − 4 𝑥5 + …
 Examples
𝜋
(6) Obtain the Maclaurin's expansion of tan 4
+ 𝑥 and hence find the value of tan 46 ⋅ 5∘ to three
places of decimals.
Solution :
𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = tan +𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = tan = 1
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = sec 2 +𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ 0 = sec 2 = 2
4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 2 ⋅ sec 2 + 𝑥 tan +𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 2 ⋅ sec 2 ⋅ tan = 4
4 4 4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 2 ⋅ sec 2 + 𝑥 ⋅ sec 2 + 𝑥 +2 . tan +𝑥 2sec 2 + 𝑥 tan +𝑥
4 4 4 4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 2 . sec 4 + 𝑥 + 4sec 2 + 𝑥 tan2 +𝑥
4 4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
` ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ 0 = 2sec 4 + 4sec 2 tan2 = 16
4 4 4
 Examples
Substituting the values of 𝑓(0), 𝑓 ′ (0), 𝑓 ′′ (0), 𝑓 ′′′ (0) in Maclaurin's theorem;
2 3 2 3
x x x x
f x = f(0) + xf ′ (0) + f ′′ (0) + f ′′′ (0) + ⋯ = 1 + x(2) + (4) + (16) + ⋯
2! 3! 2! 3!
𝜋 2
8𝑥 3
tan + 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 + + ⋯ (1)
4 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Now tan 46.5∘ = tan 45∘ + 1.5∘ = tan + = tan + 0.02618
4 120 4
1.5 𝜋 𝑐
(As 1.5∘ = 𝜋𝑐 = )
180 120
Putting x = 0.02618 in Equation (1), we get
8
tan 46.5∘ = 1 + 2(0.02618) + 2(0.02618)2
+ (0.02618)3 + ⋯
3
= 1 + 0.05236 + 0.00137 + 0.0000478 + ⋯
= 1.0537778
 Problems for Practice
Series Expansion using standard Expansions: Show that
𝑥2 5 4
sec 𝑥 = 1 + + 𝑥
2 24

2 2 𝑥4 2𝑥 6
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + +⋯
3 45
1
𝑥 11 2
(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒 1 − +
𝑥 𝑥 +. . . . .
2 24

𝑒 𝑥 5 5
𝑒 = 𝑒 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 +. . . .
6 8

𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 11 4
𝑒 =1+𝑥+ − − 𝑥 +⋯
2 3 24
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
1 + sin 𝑥 = 1 + − − + …
2 8 48 384
 Applications
Taylor series can be applied to problems that may be difficult to solve using other conventional methods. Some
functions do not have an antiderivative that can be expressed in terms of other simple functions.
Integrating these functions can be a problem as we cannot use the fundamental theorem of calculus.
In some cases, we can approximate the value of the definite integral using a Taylor series . Let us see one such
example.
1
Consider the definite integral ‫׬‬0 sin 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Unfortunately, WE CANNOT FIND ANTI-DERIVATIVE OF THIS FUNCTION in terms of simple functions.
In spite of the fact that we cannot integrate the function, we can integrate the Taylor series just as we would a
polynomial.
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
We have, sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7! +⋯
𝑥6 𝑥 10 𝑥 14
So, sin 𝑥 2 = 𝑥2 − + −
3! 5! 7!
 1 2 1 2 𝑥6 𝑥 10 𝑥 14
‫׬‬0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 −
3!
+
5!
−
7!
+ ⋯ 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥3 𝑥7 𝑥 11 𝑥 15
= − + − + ⋯
3 3!.7 5!.11 7!.15 0
1 1 1 1
= − + − + ⋯
3 7.3! 11.5! 15.7!

We can check convergence of above alternating series.

Adding first four terms we can approximate integral as 0.31026.
 WE APPROXIMATE
Simplest but most useful application of Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series is to find approximate value
of a given function to desired level of accuracy.
You can
As an example we may consider value of constants like 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 visualize Here
https://www.youtube.co
Approximate value of 𝑒 using Maclaurin’s series m/watch?v=eX1hvWx
mJVE&t=135s
2 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯
1! 2! 3!
By setting x=1 and considering first eight terms gives 2.718253.. which is correct upto 4 decimal places.
Another application of Taylor’s series is to find the polynomial that gives a good approximation to
some function.
Taylor’s series expansion can also be used to compute approximate solution of differential
equation.