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Discrete Structures UNIT 1

The document provides an overview of discrete structures and graph theory, focusing on the definition and representation of sets, including finite and infinite sets, and operations such as union, intersection, and set difference. It also discusses the concept of cardinality, power sets, and the principle of mathematical induction with examples. Additionally, it presents the distributive law of intersection over union and proofs for mathematical statements using induction.

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16 views21 pages

Discrete Structures UNIT 1

The document provides an overview of discrete structures and graph theory, focusing on the definition and representation of sets, including finite and infinite sets, and operations such as union, intersection, and set difference. It also discusses the concept of cardinality, power sets, and the principle of mathematical induction with examples. Additionally, it presents the distributive law of intersection over union and proofs for mathematical statements using induction.

Uploaded by

vishakstud24
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Structures and

Graph Theory
(22DAU208)
Dr v Bhuvaneswari
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics with Computer Applications
PSG College of Arts & Science, Coimbatore
Set
 A set is a collection of objects with certain properties.

Objects in a set are called elements or members of the set.

 We usually use
uppercase letters to denote sets and

lowercase letters to denote elements of sets.

If a is an element of set A, we write a∈A.

If a is not an element of a set A, we write a∉A.


Sets Representation
a) Roster or tabular form: In this form of representation we list all
the elements of the set within braces { } and separate them by
commas.

Example: If A= set of all odd numbers less then 10 then in the


roster from it can be expressed as A={ 1,3,5,7,9}.

b) Set Builder form: In this form of representation we list the


properties fulfilled by all the elements of the set.

Example: If B= {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}, then the set builder representation


will be: B={x: x=2n, where n ∈ N and 1≤ n ≤ 5}
More Example
• Group of all computer science major in the university

• Set of vowels in English alphabet

• {a, b, c} denote the collection of objects

• E={x: x=2k for some integer k}


Cardinality of a Sets
• The total number of unique elements in the set is called the
cardinality of the set.

• The cardinality of sets is denoted by |A|, card (A) or n (A).


Types of Sets
Finite Sets:
• A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly n distinct element
where n is a non-negative integer.

• A set is called a finite set if there is one to one


correspondence between the elements in the set and the
element in some set n, where n is a natural number and n is
the cardinality of the set.
Infinite Sets:
• A set which is not finite is called as Infinite Sets
Countable Infinite:
• If there is one to one correspondence between the elements
in set and element in N.
• A countably infinite set is also known as Denumerable.
• A set that is either finite or denumerable is known as
countable.
Example:
• {0,1,2,3,…..}
• {….,-2,-1,0,1,2,….}
Uncountable Infinite:

• A set which is not countable is called Uncountable Infinite Set


or non-denumerable set or simply Uncountable.

• Ex, Set of all rational numbers, irrational numbers are


uncountable sets.
Combination of Sets
Union
• Union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of distinct
elements that belong to set A or set B, or both.

• AUB and BUA denote the same set.

Example:

• Find the union of A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5};

Solution: A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5}.


Intersection
• The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the
set of elements that belong to both A and B

• i.e. set of the common elements in A and B.

• A∩B=B∩A

Example:

• Find the intersection of A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5}

Solution: A ∩ B = {3, 4}.


Disjoint
• Two sets are said to be disjoint if their intersection is
the empty set.
• i.e, sets have no common elements.
For Example:
• Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
A and B are disjoint sets since both of them have no common
elements.
Set Difference
• The difference between sets is denoted by ‘A – B’, which is the
set containing elements that are in A but not in B.

• i.e., all elements of A except the element of B.

Example:

• If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, find A – B

Solution:

• A – B = {1, 3, 5}
Power Set
The power set of a set A, denoted as P(A), is the collection of all
subsets of A, including:
• The empty set {}
• All single-element subsets {a}
• All possible combinations of elements from A, up to the entire
set A itself.
If a set A contains n elements, then its power set P(A) contains
2n elements.
For example, if A={1,2},
• the power set P(A) is {{},{1},{2},{1,2}}.
The Distributive Law of
Intersection over Union
Theorem:

If A, B, and C are sets, then A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).


Proof:

Case : 1 A∩(B∪C)⊆(A∩B)∪(A∩C)

Let x∈A∩(B∪C).

x ∈ A∩(B∪C) ⇒x∈A and (x∈B or x∈C)

⇒(x∈A and x∈B) or (x∈A and x∈C)

⇒(x∈A∩B) or (x∈A∩C)

⇒x∈(A∩B)∪(A∩C)

Therefore, A∩(B∪C)⊆(A∩B)∪(A∩C) ---------------------- (1)


Case 2: (A∩B)∪(A∩C)⊆A∩(B∪C)
Let x∈(A∩B)∪(A∩C) ⇒(x∈A∩B)or (x∈A∩C)
⇒(x∈A and x∈B) or (x∈A and x∈C)
⇒x∈A and (x∈B or x∈C)
⇒x∈A∩(B∪C)
Therefore, (A∩B)∪(A∩C)⊆A∩(B∪C) ------------(2)
From (1) and (2), we can conclude that

A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).
Principle of Mathematical
Induction
• Mathematical induction is a concept in mathematics that is
used to prove various mathematical statements and
theorems.
Mathematical Induction Steps
• Various steps used in Mathematical Induction are named
accordingly. The names of the various steps used in the
principle of mathematical induction are,
• Base Step: Prove P(k) is true for k =1
• Assumption Step: Let P(k) is true for all k in N and k > 1
• Induction Step: Prove P(k+1) is true using basic mathematical
properties.
Problem 1
For any positive integer number n, prove that n3 + 2n is always
divisible by 3.
Proof
• Let P(n): n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 be the given statement.
• Step 1: Basic Step
• Firstly we prove that P(1) is true. Let n = 1 in
n3 + 2n = 13 + 2(1) = 3
• As 3 is divisible by 3. Hence, P(1) is true.
Step 2: Assumption Step
• Let us assume that P(k) is true
• Then, k3 + 2k is divisible by 3
• Thus, we can write it as k3 + 2k = 3n, (where n is any
positive integer)….(i)
Step 3: Induction Steps
• Now we have to prove that algebraic expression (k + 1)3 + 2(k
+ 1) is divisible by 3
(k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) = k3 + 3k2 + 5k + 3 = (k3 + 2 k) + (3k2 + 3k + 3)
from eq(i)
• = 3n + 3(k2 + k + 1)
• = 3(n + k2 + k + 1)
• As it is a multiple of 3 we can say that it is divisible by 3.
• Thus, P(k+1) is true i.e. (k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) is be divisible by 3.
Now by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we can say
that, P(n): n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 is true.
Problem 2
For all n ≥ 1, prove that, 12 + 22 + 32+….+n2 = {n(n + 1) (2n + 1)} / 6.

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