C H A P T E R (3)

Basic Laws for Fluids

3.1 Introduction
As was discussed in the previous chapter, there are many situations involving fluids in
which the fluid can be considered as stationary. In general, however, the use of fluids involves
motion of some type. In fact, a dictionary definition of the word “fluid” is “free to change in
form.” In this chapter we investigate some typical fluid motions (fluid dynamics) in an
elementary way.
The chapter will be presented in three parts, dealing with topics, These are:
(i) Law of conservation of mass: This law when applied to a control volume states that the
net mass flow through the volume will equal the mass stored or removed from the volume.
Under conditions of steady flow this will mean that the mass leaving the control volume
should be equal to the mass entering the volume. The determination of flow velocity for a
specified mass flow rate and flow area is based on the continuity equation derived on the basis
of this law.
(ii) Law of conservation of energy: Considering a control volume the law can be stated as
“the energy flow into the volume will equal the energy flow out of the volume under steady
conditions”. This also leads to the situation that the total energy of a fluid element in a steady
flow field is conserved. This is the basis for the derivation of Euler and Bernoulli equations
for fluid flow.
We first develop the concept of the control volume, in nearly the same manner as one
does in a thermodynamics course, and we find the rate of change of an arbitrary gross fluid
property, a result called the Reynolds transport theorem. We then apply this theorem, in
sequence, to mass and energy, thus deriving two basic control-volume relations of fluid
mechanics. There are many applications, of course. The chapter then ends with a special case
of frictionless, shaft work- free momentum and energy: the Bernoulli equation. The Bernoulli
equation is a wonderful, historic relation, but it is extremely restrictive and should always be
viewed with skepticism and care in applying it to a real (viscous) fluid motion.
3.2 Systems and Control Volumes
The laws are applied to an identified quantity of matter called the system.
(i) The system is defined as any quantity with fixed mass and variable properties  p, T , v  and
may change shape, position, and thermal condition but must always entail the same matter,

111
 for example, one may choose the steam in an engine cylinder as in Figure (3.1). As the
piston moves, the volume of the system changes but there is no change in the quantity and
identity of mass.
(ii) Control volume is defined as a fixed volume in space and the mass may be changed with
time,
(iii) Control surface is the boundary of the control volume. The amount and identity of the
matter in the control volume may change with the time, but the shape of the control volume
is fixed. For instance, to study flow through a nozzle, one could choose, as a control
volume, the interior of the nozzle as shown in Fig.(3.2). We note that the control volume
and the system can be infinitesimal.

Fig.(3.1): A system Fig. (3.2): Control volume

3.3 One and Two–Dimensional Flows

One–dimensional flow is simplification where all properties and flow characteristics
are assumed functions of one space coordinate and time. The position is usually the location
along some path or conduit. A one–dimensional flow in the pipe shown in Fig. (3.3) would
require that the velocity is constant, and vary only with s at this time t. In reality, the velocity
of fluid in pipes will vary over the cross section as shown in Fig. (3.4).
Two–dimensional flow is distinguished by the condition that all properties and flow
characteristics are functions of two Cartesian coordinates, say, x, y, and time, and hence do
not change along the z direction at a given instant.

112
Fig. (3.3): One–dimension (1–D) flow. Fig. (3.4): Comparison of 1–D flow and actual flow.
3.4 Steady and Unsteady Flow
In order to study the flow pattern it is necessary to classify the various types of flow.
The classification will depend upon the constancy or variability of the velocity with time. In
steady flow the property values at a location in the flow are constant and the values do not
vary with time. The velocity at a point remains constant with time. These can be expressed as
V  f  x, y, z .

In steady flow a picture of the flow field recorded at different times will be identical. In
the case of unsteady flow, the properties vary with time or V  f  x, y, z , t , where t is time.
In unsteady flow the appearance of the flow field will vary with time and will be constantly
changing.
3.5 Compressible and Incompressible Flow
If the density of the flowing fluid is the same all over the flow field at all times, then
such flow is called incompressible flow. Flow of liquids can be considered as incompressible
even if the density varies a little due to temperature difference between locations.
If the density varies with location, the flow is called compressible flow such as gases. In this
case the gas density can be calculated from the equation of state for gases:
P
 (3.1)
RT
3.6 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)
Since the mass M of any system is constant as noted above, we can say at any time t
DM 
Dt
0
t C.V

 dv    V  dA 
C .S

Since we can choose a system of any shape at time t, the relation above is then valid for
any control volume at time t; figure (3.5).

113
 Fig. (3.5): Flow through a control volume


t C.V
 
 dv    V  dA  0 (3.2)
C .S

That is, the net efflux rate of mass through the control surface equals the rate of decrease of
mass inside the control volume. Equation (3.2) and its simplified forms are called equation of
continuity.
m   
  m in  m out (3.3)
t  C .V

If the flow is steady relative to a reference fixed to the control volume, all fluid
properties, including the density at any fixed position in the reference, must remain invariant
m 
with time. The right side of Eq. (3.3) can be written in the form and this integral  0.
t  C .V

Hence we can state that any steady flow

  V  dA  0
C .S

 
m in  m out (3.4)
Next, consider the case of incompressible flow, in this case,  is constant at all
positions in the domain and for all even if the velocity field is unsteady. The right side of
Eq.(3.2) vanishes then, and on the left side of this equation we can extract  from under the
integral sign. We may then say that

 V  dA  0
C .S

V .Ain  V . Aout (3.5)

Thus, for any incompressible flow; conservation of mass reduces to conservation of volume.

114
Let us, consider the very common situation in which fluid enters some device through a pipe
and leaves the device through a second pipe, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. (3.6). A
dashed line indicates the control surface we have chosen. We assume that the flow is steady
relative to the control volume and that the inlet and outlet flows are one–dimensional.
Applying Eq.(3.4) for this case, we get

 V  dA   V  dA   V  dA

C .S A1 A1

where A1 and A2 are, respectively, the entrance and exit area.

 V  dA    VdA   VdA

C .S A1 A2

With  and V constant at each section as a result of the one–dimensional restriction for the
inlet and outlet flows, we get for this equation
 1V1  dA   2V2  dA  0
A1 A2

Integrating, we get 1V1 A1   2V2 A2

Fig. (3.6): Control volume for device with 1-D inlet and outlet

Example (3.1)
Air flows steadily between two cross–sections in a long, straight portion of 0.1 m inside
diameter pipe. The static temperature and pressure at each section are indicated in fig. If the
average air velocity at section (2) is 320 m s, calculate the average air velocity at section (1)

115
Solution
The general continuity equation is

t C.V
 
 dv    V  dA  0
C .S

m  
 m in  m out
t
We can now write continuity equation as follows:
 
m in  m out
1V1 A1   2V2 A2 since constant area
1V1   2V2
p
For prefect gas the equation of state  
RT
p1 p
V1  2 V2
R T1 R T2

p2 T1
V1  V2
p1 T2

45 268
V1    320  208.8 m s
77 240
Example (3.2)
Water is forced into the device at the rate of
0.1 m 3 s through pipe A , while oil of specific

gravity 0.8 is forced in at the rate of 0.03 m 3 s

through pipe B. If the liquids are
incompressible and form a homogeneous
mixture. What is the average velocity and
density of the mixture leaving through pipe C
having a 0.3 m in diameter. Assume steady
flow.
Solution
The general continuity equation is

t C.V
 
 dv    V  dA  0
C .S

116
  
m
 min  mout
t C .V

We can now write continuity equation as follows:

Qin  Qout

Q A  QB  QC

0.1  0.03  QC QC  0.13 m 3 s

 
m in  m out
  
m A  m B  mC
 Q A   Q B   Q C
1000  0.1  800  0.03   C  0.13

100  24  0.13  C  C  953.85 kg m 3

QC Q 0.13
VC   C   1.84 m s
AC  D 2  0.32
C
4 4
Example (3.3)
A circular tank of 0.5 m diameter is initially filled with water at a height of H  2 m. A valve
at the bottom of the tank is opened and the water escapes through it. The outlet discharge Q0 

is expressed as a function of the istantaneous water level ” h ” as, Q0  0.04 h m 3 s

(a) Drive an expression of ( dh / dt ) as afunction of the instantaneous water level “ h ”
(b) Calculate the escaping time, T.

Solution
(a) expression for (dh/dt)
Applying Cintinuity equation

117
 m  
 min  mout
t C .V

m
 0   Q out
t C .V

m
   .Q0
t C .V

m
    0.04 h
t C .V

 .v 
 0.04  h
t C .V

v 
  0.04  h
t C .V

 A.h 
 0.04 h
t C .V

dh
A  0.04 h
dt

0.52 dh  0.04 h ,
dh
 0.204 h
4 dt dt

(b) The Escaping Time, T

dh
 0.204 h
dt
dh
 0.204dt
h
1

h 2 dh  0.204dt
0 1 T


H
 h 2 dh   0.204dt 0

0
 12 
2h   0.204t 0
T

 H


2 0  H  0.204T  0 
 2 H  0.204T

 2 2  0.204T , T  13.86 sec

118
Example (3.4)
Water flows into a cylindrical tank through pipe (1) at the rate of 6 m / s and leaves through
pipes (2) and (3) at the rates of 2.4 m / s and 3 m / s, respectively. At (4), we have an open-air
vent.

(i) What is dh / dt ?
(ii) What is the average velocity of airflow through vent (4), assuming the flow is
incompressible. Given that
D1  7.5 cm D2  5 cm D3  6 cm D4  5 cm

Solution
(a) Consider only water in the control volume
The general continuity equation is

t C.V
 
 dv    V  dA  0
C .S

Assumptions
1- incompressible flow.
2- One-dimensional flow.
m  
 min  mout
t C .V

m   
 m1   m2  m3 
t C .V  

  v 
 Q1   Q2   Q3 
t C .V

v
 Q1   Q2  Q3 
t C .V

119
  AH  h 
 V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 
t C .V

0  dh
A  V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 
dt C .V

dh
A  V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 
dt
 dh     
 D2  V1 D12  V2 D22  V3 D32 
4 dt 4  4 4 
2 2 2
2 dh  7.5    5   6  
 0.6   6    2.4     2.4    
dt  100    100   100  

dh
 0.36  0.03375  0.00625  0.00864 
dt
dh dh
 0.36  0.01886  0.0524 m s
dt dt
(b) Consider only air in the control volume
The general continuity equation is

t C.V

 dv    V  dA  0 
C .S

m  
 min  mout
t C .V

m   
 0   m4 
t C .V  

  v 
   Q4
t C .V

v
 Q4
t C .V

 Ah
 V4 A4
t C .V

dh
A  V4 A4
dt C .V

 dh 
D2  V4  D42
4 dt 4
2

0.6  0.0524  V4   5 

2
V4  7.55 m s
 100 

120
Example (3.5)
The water tank in fig. is being filled through section (1) at V1  5 m s and through section (3)
at Q3  0.012 m 3 s . If tank diameter D  1 m. Determine
(a) the exit velocity V2 if water level h is constant
(b) if velocity V2  8 m s , determine the rate of change dh dt.

Solution
The general continuity equation is

t C.V
 
 dv    V  dA  0
C .S

m  
 min  mout
t C .V

(a) when h is constant

m
For steady state 0
t C .V
 
min  mout  0
 
min  mout
  
m1  m3  m2

 Q 1   Q 3   Q 2
Q1  Q3  Q2

V1 A1  Q3  Q2


V1 D12  Q3  Q2
4
121
 
5 0.042  0.012  Q2 Q2  0.01828 m 3 s
4
Q2 Q2 0.01828
V2     6.47 m s
A2   2
D22
0.06
4 4
(b) The rate of change of h
m  
 min  mout
t C .V

m   
 
  m1  m3   m2
t C .V  
m
 Q1  Q3   Q2
t
 v 
 V1 A1  Q3   V2 A2
t
v
 V1 A1  Q3   V2 A2
t
 Ah     
  5  0.04  0.012   8  0.06
2 2

t  4  4
dh
A  0.01828  0.02262
dt
 dh
D2  0.00434
4 dt

12 dh  0.00434 dh
 0.00552 m s
4 dt dt
Example (3.6)
Air at standard conditions enters the compressor shown in Figure at a rate of 10 ft 3 s. It
leaves the tank through a 1.2 in diameter pipe with a density of 0.0035 slugs ft 3 and a uniform
speed of 700 ft s.
(a) Determine the rate  slug s  at which the mass of air in the tank is increasing or decreasing.
(b) Determine the average time rate of change of air density within the tank.

122
Solution
(a) the rate at which the mass of air in the tank is increasing or decreasing
Applying Continuity equation
m  
 min  mout
t C .V

m
  Q in   Q out
t C .V

m
  Q in  VAout
t C .V

m   
  Q in   V  D 2 
t C .V  4  out
2
m    1.2  
 0.00238  10in   0.0035  700    
t C .V  4  12  
 out

m
 0.0238  0.01924  0.00456 slug s
t C .V

(b) the average time rate of change of air density within the tank
m   v  
 v
t t t
m 
v
t t

0.00456  20
t

 0.000228 slug ft 3  s
t

123
3.7 Energy Equation
The first law of thermodynamics (energy equation) is a statement of macroscopic
experience which states that energy must at all times be conserved.
It will be convenient to classify energy under two main categories: stored energy and energy
in transition. The types of stored energy of an element of mass are:
1. Kinetic energy E k : energy associated with the motion of the mass.
2. Potential energy E p : energy associated with the position of the mass in conservative

external fields.
3. Internal energy U : molecular and atomic energy associated with the internal fields of the
mass.
The types of energy in transition are heat and work. Heat is the energy in transition from one
mass to another as a result of a temperature difference. On the other hand, work, as learned in
mechanics, is the energy in transition to or from a system which occurs when external forces,
acting on the system, move through a distance.
For an arbitrary system, (shown in Fig.3.7) the net heat added to the system and the net
work done by the system on the surroundings during the time interval t are designated as q
and Wk , respectively.
If E represents the total stored energy of a system at any time t and its property as a point
function is employed, conservation of energy demands that for a process occurring during
interval t1 to t2.
q  Wk  E  E 2  E1  E k  E p  U 2  E k  E p  U 1 (3.6)

Fig.(3.7): Heat and work on system

The differential form of Equation (3.6). may be written in the following manner:
dE  dq  dWk

124
Accordingly, we can employ the usual derivative notation dq dt and dWk dt for time
derivative. However, E is a point function and expressible in terms of spatial variables and
time. Thus we have for the time variations of stored energy and energy in transition for a
system.
DE dq dWK
  (3.7)
Dt dt dt

To develop the control volume approach, we will consider E to be the extensive property to
be used in the Reynolds transport equation. The term e will then represent stored energy per
unit mass. We can then say using the Reynolds transport equation
DE 
  e (  V .dA )  e  dv (3.8)
Dt C .S
 t C.V

Using Eq.(3.7) in the left side of Eq. (3.8), we get

dq dWk 
   e (  V .dA )  e  dv (3.9)
dt dt C .S
 t C.V

Equation (3.9) then states that the net rate of energy transferred into the control volume by
heat and work equals the rate of efflux of stored energy from control volume plus the rate of
increase of stored energy inside the control volume.
V2
Where e is expressed as: e  gz  u
2
Next let us discuss the term dWk dt in Eq. (3.9) which is classified into three groups:
1. Net work done on the surroundings as a result of traction force.
2. Work transferred by body forces
3. Any other work transferred by direct contact between inside and outside non fluid elements,
like shafts or by electric currents. We call this work shaft work and denote it as WS.
A general form of the first law can now be given as:

dq dWs    V2   V2 
   m Pv   gz  u   m Pv   gz  u  (3.10)
dt dt   2  out   2  in
Simple example may be given for a steady flow where inlet and outlet flows to and from a
device, respectively, are considered one-dimensional. Such an example is shown in Fig.
(3.25). This may represent, for instance, a gas turbine where the control volume has been
selected to represent the inside volume of the turbine casing, and sections AA and BB of the
control surface have been established in the inlet and outlet of the turbine.

125
 dq dWs   V2    V2 
  m2  P2 v 2  2  gz 2  u 2   m1  P1v1  1  gz1  u1  (3.11)
dt dt  2   2 

Fig. (3.8): Control Volume for energy equation

1
Since we have   , the following form of the first law :
v

dq   V2  dWs   V2 
 m1  p1v  1  gz1  u1    m 2  p 2 v  2  gz 2  u 2 
dt  2  dt  2 
   P V2     P V2 
q  m1  1  1  gz1  u1   Ws  m 2  2  2  gz 2  u 2  (3.12)
 1 2   2 2 
The left side of Eq. (3.12) represents energies per unit time entering the control volume.
P
Since the enthalpy, h, is defined as h  Pv  u  u

Then Eq.(3.12) can be rewritten as:
   V12     V22 

q  m1  h1   
 gz1   Ws  m 2  h2   gz 2  (3.13)
 2   2 
(A) In the case of pump in the system
 P1 V12
   P
2 V22 

m   
 gz1  u1    W p  m   gz 2  u 2  g.hlss 
 2   2 
No change in internal energy
 P1 V12
   P
2 V22 

m   
 gz1   W p  m   gz 2  g.hlss 
 2   2 

P1 V2 Wp P V 2
 1  gz1    2  2  gz 2  g.hlss
 2 m  2

126
 
P1 V2 W p P2 V22
 1  gz1     gz 2  g .hlss
 2 Q  2

P1 V12 Wp P V2
  z1   2  2  z 2  hlss
g 2 g gQ g 2 g

Wp
But  h p in negative sign
gQ
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  h p  2  2  z 2  hlss
g 2 g g 2 g
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  h p  2  2  z 2  hlss
g 2 g g 2 g
There is a relation between pump head h p and pump flow rate Q

h p  AQ 2  BQ  C

Where A, B, C are constants

(B)In the case of Turbine in the system
P V2   P V2 
m 1  1  gz1  u1   WT  m 2  2  gz 2  u 2  g.hlss 
 2   2 
No change in internal energy
P V2   P V2 
m 1  1  gz1   WT  m 2  2  gz 2  g.hlss 
 2   2 

P1 V2 W P V2
 1  gz1  T  2  2  gz 2  g .hlss
 2 m  2


P1 V2 W P V2
 1  gz1  T  2  2  gz 2  g.hlss
 2 Q  2

P1 V12 WT P2 V22
  z1     z 2  hlss
g 2 g gQ g 2 g

W
But T  hT in positive sign
gQ
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  hT  2  2  z 2  hlss
g 2 g g 2 g
There is a relation between pump head hT and pump flow rate Q
hT  AQ 2  BQ  C
127
 Where A, B, C are constants

Example (3.7)
A hydroelectric power plant takes in 30 m 3 s of water through its turbine and discharges it to
the atmosphere at V2  2 m s . Estimate the power extracted by the turbine.

Solution

m  Q  1000  30  30000 kg s

Applying energy equation

  P V2    P V 2 
q  m  1  1  gz1   W  m  2  2  gz 2 
 2   2 

P
0  30000 atm 
02  9.8  100  W  30000 Patm  22  g 0
  
  2    2 

29400000  W  600000

W  29340000 Watt
 
W  29340 KW W  29.34 MW
Example (3.8)
Consider a turbine extracting energy from a penstock in a dam, as in Fig. For turbulent pipe
flow, the friction head loss is approximately hloss  C Q 2 , where the constant C depends upon
penstock dimensions and the properties of water. Show that, for a given penstock geometry
and variable river flow Q, the maximum turbine power possible in this case is

W max  2 gHQ 3 and occurs when the flow rate is Q  H 3C  .

128
Solution
Applying energy equation
  P V2    P V 2 
q  m  1  1  gz1   W  m  2  2  gz 2  ghloss 
 2   2 

Neglect heat transfer q  0
The velocity V1  V2  0
The pressure P1  P2  Patm
 P    P 
m  atm  0  gH   W  m  atm  0  g 0  g  CQ 2 
     
  
m gH  W  m g  CQ 2
   
W  m gH  m gCQ 2 but m   Q

W  Q  gH  Q  gCQ 2

W   gHQ   gC Q 3

For maximum power, differentiate and set equal to zero


dW
0
dQ

 gH  3 gC Q 2  0

H  3C Q 2  0

H  3C Q 2
H
Q2  Q  H 3C
3C
Put Q to get maximum power

W   gHQ   gC Q 3

129
 
W max   gH H 3C   gC  H 3C 
3


W max   gH H 3C   gC H 3C  H 3C

 H 
W max   g H 3C  H  C 
 3C 
 H

W max   g H 3C  H  
 3
 2
W max   g H 3C  H
3
 2  2
W max   gH H 3C , W max   gHQ
3 3
Example (3.9)
Compute the power developed by the turbine from the water coming from a large reservoir.

Solution
Calculate the volume flow rate
Q  V2 A2


Q  V2  D22
4

Q  9 0.0752  0.04 m 3 s
4
Applying energy equation
  P V2    P V 2 
q  m  1  1  gz1   W  m  2  2  gz 2  ghloss 
 2   2 

Neglect heat transfer q  0
The velocity V1  0
The pressure P1  P2  Patm

130
  P    P
m  atm  0  g  30  W  m  atm 
92  g 0  0

     2 
 
W  m g  30  m
 92
2

 81 
W    Q  g  30  
 2
 81  

W  1000  0.04 9.81  30    10152 W W  10 .15 kW
 2
Example (3.10)
Water moves steadily through the turbine shown at the rate of 220 L s . The pressures at points
(1) and (2) are 170 kPa gage and  20 kPa gage, respectively. What is the power delivered to
the turbine from the water?

Solution
(1) Calculate the velocity at point (1) and (2)
Q  V1 A1

Q  V1  D12
4

0.22  V1  0.22 , V1  7 m s
4
Q  V2 A2


Q  V2  D22
4

0.22  V2  0.42 , V2  1.75 m s
4
Applying energy equation

131
   P V2    P V 2 
q  m  1  1  gz1   W  m  2  2  gz 2  ghloss 
 2   2 
2 2
P V   P V 
0  Q  1  1  g 1  W  Q  2  2  g 0   g 0
 2   2 
170  10
1000  0.22 
3

7   9.81  1  W  1000  0.22  20  10 3  1.752 
2

  
 1000 2   1000 2 

220170  24.5  9.81  W  220 20  1.53

44948.5  W  4063.4

W  49011.9W  49 kW
Example (3.11)
A shown Figure gives a system of highly insulated pipes through which water is flowing. In
the upper pipe, the water leaving the pipe with an increase of internal energy of 23 kJ / kg
over the water entering at A, and the water leaving the lower pipe has an increase in internal
energy of 116 kJ / kg . Compute the velocity V3 for the data given in the diagram. Take the
water as incompressible with an internal energy entering the pipe of 140 kJ / kg.

Solution
Internal Energy
u1  140 kJ kg  140000 J kg

u 2  140  23  163 kJ kg  163000 J kg

u 3  140  116  256 kJ kg  256000 J kg

Pressure
The following Pressures are absolute pressure
P1  Patm   Hg .g 0.2   w .g 0.25

132
 P1  101325  13600  9.81 0.2  1000  9.81  0.25  130460.7 Pa

P2  101325 Pa

P3  101325 Pa

Mass flow rates


m1  V1 A1  1000  V1  5200  10 6  5.2 V1

m2  V2 A2  1000  6  1300  10 6  7.8 kg s

m3  V3 A3  1000  V3  2600  10 6  2.6 V3

Continuity equation
 
m in  m out
  
m1  m 2  m 3
5.2V1  7.8  2.6V3

V1  1.5  0.5V3

Applying energy equation with the inlet at point (1) and the exit at points (2) and (3)
  P1 V12    P
2 V22    P3 V32 

q  m1    
 gz1  u1   WP  m 2    gz 2  u 2   m 3    gz 3  u 3 
 2   2   2 
 P V2     P V2   P V2 
m1  1  1  gz1  u1   WP1  WP 2  m 2  2  2  gz 2  u 2   m 3  3  3  gz3  u 3 
 2   2   2 
  130460.7
m1 
V2      101325
 1  0  u1    WP1  WP 2  m 2  
62  g 15  u   m  101325  V32  0  u 
3
2  1000 3
 1000 2   1000 2   2 
2 2
 V     V 
5.2V1 130.46  1  u1    WP1  WP 2  7.8101.3  18  9.81  15  u 2   2.6V3 101.3  3  u 3 
 2   2 
 
   
5.2V1 130.46  0.5V12  u1   WP1  WP 2  7.8256.45  u 2   2.6V3 101.3  0.5V32  u 3

5.2V 130.46  0.5V  u   13000  6500  7.8256.45  u   2.6V 101.3  0.5V  u 

1 1
2
1 2 3 3
2
3

5.2V 130.46  0.5V  u   19500  7.8256.45  u   2.6V 101.3  0.5V  u 

1 1
2
1 2 3 3
2
3

5.2V 130.46  0.5V  140000  19500  7.8256.45  163000  2.6V 101.3  0.5V  256000
1 1
2
3 3
2

5.2V 140130.46  0.5V   19500  1273400  2.6V 0.5V  256101.3

1 1
2
3 3
2

728678.4V1  2.6V13  1253900  1.3V33  665863.4V3

728678.41.5  0.5V3   2.61.5  0.5V3   1253900  1.3V33  665863.4V3

3

133
1093017.6  364339.2V3  2.61.5  0.5V3   1253900  1.3V33  665863.4V3
3

2.61.5  0.5V3   160882.4  1.3V33  301524.2V3

3

1.5  0.5V3 3  61878  0.5V33  115970.85V3

By try and error, we can obtain the value of V3

3.6 Bernoulli’s Equation

Let us consider a portion of a stream-tube in a steady, incompressible, non-viscous flow, as
shown in Fig. (3.9), as our control volume. In applying the first law of thermodynamics for
this control volume, we note that Eq. (3.13) is valid. There is obviously no work other than

flow work, and hence the term W is zero. We then obtain after some rearrangement
dq   P1 V12   P V2 
 m1    gz1  u1   m 2  2  2  gz 2  u 2  (3.14)
dt  2   2 
For adiabatic frictionless flow there are, no heat transfer or change in internal energy, and we
obtain

Fig. (3.9): Stream tube in a steady, incompressible, nonviscous flow.

P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2 (3.15)
 2  2
This equation is again Bernoulli’s equation. Shrinking the stream-tube cross–section without
limit, Bernoulli’s equation then states that along a streamline the mechanical energy per unit
mass is conserved. Or, along any one streamline:
P V2
  gz  cons tan t
 2

P V2
or   gz  cons tan t
 2

The constant may have a different value for each streamline.

134
If we compare the Bernoulli’s Equation (B.E) with the energy equation, we see that the B.E
contains even more restrictions than might first be realized. The complete list of assumptions
for BE is as follows:
1. Steady- a common assumption applicable to many flows
2. Incompressible- acceptable if the flow Mach number is less than 0.3.
3. Frictionless or non-viscous.
4. Flow along a streamline- different streamlines may have different "Bernoulli constants",
depending on the flow condition.
5. No shaft work- no pumps or turbines on the streamline.
6. No heat transfer- either added or removed.
3.7 Hydraulic and Energy Grade
A useful visual interpretation of Bernoulli’s equation is to sketch two grade lines of a
flow. The energy grade line (EGL) shows the height of the total Bernoulli constant, so
P V2
EGL   z
g 2 g
(3.16)
In frictionless flow with no work or heat transfer, the EGL has constant height.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) shows the height corresponding to elevation and pressure
head
P
HGL  z (3.17)
g
V2
That is, HGL  EGL 
2g

The HGL is the height to which liquid would rise in a piezometer tube attached to the flow. In
an open-channel flow the HGL is identical to the free surface of the water.
Figure (3.10) illustrates the EGL and HGL for frictionless flow at sections (1) and (2) of a
P
duct. The piezometer tubes measure the static-pressure head  z and thus outline the HGL.
g

P V2
The pitot stagnation-velocity tubes measure the total head z , which corresponds to
g 2g
the EGL. In this particular case the EGL is constant, and the HGL rises due to a drop in
velocity.

135
In more general flow conditions, the EGL will drop slowly due to friction losses and will drop
sharply due to a substantial loss (a valve or obstruction) or due to work extraction (to a
turbine). The EGL can rise only if there is work addition (as from a pump or propeller). The
HGL generally follows the behavior of the EGL with respect to losses or work transfer, and it
rises and/or falls if the velocity decreases and/or increases.

Fig. (3.10): Hydraulic and Energy grade lines for frictionless flow in a duct

Example (3.12)
Find the velocity and volumetric discharge at the exit
(2) for the shown fig.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli's equation
p1 V12 p V2
  g z1  2  2  g z 2  ghloss
 2  2

patm

02  9.81.5  0.6  3 
patm

V22
 g 0  0
 2  2

V22
9.8  5.1 
2
V22  2  9.8  5.1  99.96

136
 V2  99.96  10 m s

Q  V2 A2

 
Q  V2 d 22  10  0.152  0.177 m3 s
4 4
Example (3.13)
Water is to delivered from a reservoir through a pipe to a lower level and discharged into the
air, as shown in fig. if head loss in the entire system is 11.58 m, determine the vertical
distance between the point of water discharge and the water surface in the reservoir.

Solution
Q Q 0.00631
V2     3.214 m s
A2   2
d22
0.05
4 4
Applying Bernoulli's equation between (1) and (2)
P1 V12 P2 V22
  g z1    g z 2  ghloss
 2  2

Patm

02 gz
Patm

3.2142  g 0   9.8  11.58
 2  2
g z  5.165  113.484

9.8  z  118.649 z  12.1 m

Example (3.14)
The siphon of the fig. below is filled with water and discharging at 150 L s , with pipe diameter
of 200 mm.
(a) Find the head losses from point (1) to piont (B)
(b) find the pressure at point (B) if two – thirds of the head losses occur between (1) and (B).

137
Solution
Q Q 0.15
V B  VC     4.775 m s
A  2  2
d 0.2
4 4
(a) Head losses from point (1) to piont (C)
Applying Bernoulli's equation between (1) and (C)
P1 V12 PC VC2
  g z1    g z C  ghloss
 2  2

Patm

02  g 0  
Patm

4.7752  9.81   2.4   ghloss
 2  2

0  11.4  23.54  9.81hloss

9.81hloss  12.14 hloss  1.2375 m

(b) Pressure at point (B)

2
Loss from (1) to (B) hloss   1.2375  0.825 m
3
Applying Bernoulli's equation between (1) and (B)
P1 V12 P V2
  g z1  B  B  g z B  ghloss
 2  2
2 2
Patm

0
 g 0  
PB

4.775
 9.81  1.2  9.81  0.825
 2  2

101325 P
 B  11.4  11.77  8.1
1000 1000
PB
101.325   31.27
1000
PB
 70.055 PB  70055 Pa
1000

138
3.8 Applications of Bermoulli’s Equation
The Bernoulli’s equation finds its application in every problem of incompressible fluid
flow, where energy considerations are involved. Many measuring devices such as the pitot
tube, Venturi meter, Orifice meter ect. Utilize the principle embodied in the Bernoulli’s
equation.
3.8.1 Flow through orifices
A well-rounded, small nozzle, acting as an orifice for the tank shown in Fig. (3.10). A
free jet of water is exiting from the tank. It will be of interest to determine the water velocity
and discharge leaving the orifice.

Fig. (3.10): Flow through orifice

Apply both continuity and Bernoulli’s equations between (1) and (2) then,
P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2
 2  2

and continuity eqn: V1 A1  V2 A2

A2
V1  V2
A1

But orifice area A2 is very small compared with tank cross section area A1 , so, the velocity V1
is very small compared with V2
Then V1  0
Since P1  P2  Patm and Z1  h, Z 2  0 , the Bernoulli’s equation can be reduced to,

P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2
 2  2

Patm Patm V22

 0  gh   0
  2

139
 V22
gh  V2  2 gh
2
For more accurate results, one may account for the friction between the two points, (1) and
(2). An experimentally determined coefficient called velocity coefficient CV is multiplied by

 
the theoretical velocity to deduce the actual velocity Vac  CV 2 gh . For other than well
rounded opening there will be a contraction of the jet stream leaving the tank. The smallest
section of the jet is called Venna contracta, and the area of this section is determined
experimentally. Instead, the theoretical area is multiplied by the so called area coefficient or
coefficient of contraction C C  to determine the actual flow area  Aac  C C . A2 . The actual
discharge is the calculated by multiplying the actual velocity by the actual area, then,
Qac  Aac .Vac

Qac  C c A2 ..CV V2 

Qac  C c .CV . A2 .V2

Qac  C d A2 .V2

Where C C  CV is called the discharge coefficient C d , which is defined as the ratio between
the actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. Then the actual discharge is,
Q2  Qac  C d A2 2 gh (3.18)
Example (3.15)
A large tank with a well – rounded, small opening as an outlet is shown in fig. what is the
velocity of a jet issuing from the tank when h equal 10 m ?

Solution
Applying Bernoulli's equation
P1 V12 P V2
  g z1  2  2  g z 2  ghloss
 2  2

140
 Patm

02 gh
Patm

V22
 g 0   0
 2  2

V22
gh
2
V 2  2g h

V2  2 gh  2  9.8  10  14 m s

Example (3.16)
Two cylinders standing upright contain liquid and are connected by a submerged orifice. The
diameters of the cylinders are 1.75 m and 1.0 m and of the orifice, 0.08 m. The difference in
levels of the liquid is initially 1.35 m. Find how long it will take for this difference to be
reduced to 0.66 m if the coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.605.

Solution
(i) Bernoulli's equation between (1) and (2)
P1 V12 P V2
  g z1  2  2  g z 2  ghloss
 2  2

Patm

02  gh1 
Patm  gh2

V22
 g 0   g 0 
 2  2

Patm Patm gh2 V22

 gh1   
   2

V22
gh1  gh2 
2
V22
 gh1  gh2
2
V22  2 g h1  h2 

V22  2 gh V2  2 gh
141
 Q0  C dV2 A0

Q0  C d A0 2 gh

(ii) Continuity equation on tank (A)

m  
 min  mout
t
m
 0  Q0
t
  v 
  Q0
t
v
   Q0
t
 A1h1 
 Q0
t
dh1 dh1 Q
A1  Q0  0
dt dt A1

(iii) Continuity equation on tank (B)

m  
 min  mout
t
m
 Q0  0
t
  v 
 Q0
t
v
  Q0
t
 A2 h2 
 Q0
t
dh2 dh2 Q0
A2  Q0 
dt dt A2

Then
dh1 dh2 Q Q
  0  0
dt dt A1 A2

d h1  h2   1 1 
 Q0   
dt  A1 A2 

dh  A  A1 
 Q0  1 
dt  A1 A2 

142
 dh  A1  A1 
 C d A0 2 gh  
dt  A1 A2 

dh  A  A1 
 C d A0 2 g  1  dt
h  A1 A2 
h final 1 t
  A  A1 
 h dh    C d A0 2 g  1
2  dt
hinitial 0
A A
 1 2 
h final
 12   A  A1  t
 2h   C d A0 2 g  1  t 0
  hinitial  A1 A2 

 A  A1 
2 
h final  hinitial  C d A0 2 g  1
A A
 t  0
 1 2 
2 A1 A2
t
C d A0 2 g  A1  A2 
 hinitial  h final 

2 1.752   12
t

4
2
4
 2  2
1.35  0.66 
0.605  0.08 2  9.8  1.75  1 
4 4 4 
3.778208
t  0.349491 t  30.74 sec
0.04296
3.8.2 Flow through a Venturi meter
The device shown in Fig.(3.11) is known as a venturi meter, which consists of a converging
and diverging conical section of a pipe arrangement to give an increase in velocity as the pipe
converges, causing a measurable pressure drop. The diverging section is used to reconvert the
increased kinetic energy into pressure energy with minimum turbulence and friction losses.

Fig.(3.11): Venturi meter

Let us refer to the density of the fluid in the U– tube by  M and the density of the fluid
flowing in the venturimeter by 
(a) Applying continuity equation between point (1) and point (2)
143
 Q1  Q2

A2
V1 A1  V2 A2 , so, V1  V2
A1

(b) Applying Bernoulli’s equations betwwn point (1) and point (2)
P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2
 2  2

Assume point (1) and point (2) in the same level, so z1  z 2

P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2
 2  2

P1 V12 P2 V22
   but P1  P2   M   g.h
 2  2

 M   g.h  V22 
V12
 2 2
2
 M   g.h  V22 1 V A
  2 2


 2 2  A1 
2
 M   g.h  V22 1   A2  

 2  A  
  1 

2 M   g .h
V22 
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  
 

2 M   g .h
V2 
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  
 

1 2 M   g.h
V2 
A 
2 
1   2 
 A1 

1 2 M   g .h
V2 
 D 2 
2 
1   22 
 D1 

1 2 M   g .h
V2 
1  D2 D1 
4 

(c) the discharge are given respectively by,

144
 Q  C d A2V2

1 2 M   g.h
Q  C d A2
1  D2 D1 
4 

C d A2 2 M   g.h
Q (3.19)
1  D2 D1 
4 

Example (3.17)
The flow rate in a pipe is determined by use of
the Venturi meter shown in Fig. Using the
information given in the figure and h  4 cm ,
calculate the flow rate assuming uniform flow
and no losses.
Solution
The manometer allows the pressures to be related by
P1   w gh  P2   Hg gh

P1  P2   Hg   w gh

P1  P2  13600  10009.8  0.04

P1  P2  4939.2

Applying continuity equation for steady incompressible flow

Q1  Q2

V1 A1  V2 A2

 
V1  D12  V2  D22
4 4
V1 D12  V2 D22

V1 0.1  V2 0.06
2 2
V2  2.778 V1

Applying Bernoulli's equation for points (1) and (2) on the centerline
P1 V12 P V2
  g z1  2  2  g z 2  ghloss
 2  2

P1  P2 V12 V2
  g 0   2  g 0   g 0 
 2 2

V12 2.778 V1 
2
P1  P2
 
 2 2

145
 P1  P2

2.778 V1 2  V12
 2

4939.2 7.717V12  V12


1000 2
4.9392  3.3585 V12

V12  1.471 V1  1.213 m s

 
Q  V1 A1  V1 D12  1.213  0.12  0.00953 m3 s
4 4
Example (3.18)
A nother way of measuring flow rates is to use the flow nozzle, which is a device inserted into
the pipe as shown in figure. If A2 is the exit area of the flow nozzle, show that for
 A2 2P1  P2  
incompressible flow: Q  C d  
 1   A2 A1 2  
 

Solution

Applying continuity equation between point (1) and point (2)

Q1  Q2

A2
V1 A1  V2 A2 , so, V1  V2
A1

Applying Bernoulli’s equations betwwn point (1) and point (2)

P1 V12 P V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2
 2  2

Assume point (1) and point (2) in the same level, so z1  z 2

146
 P1 V12 P2 V22
  
 2  2

P1  P2 V22 V12
 
 2 2

A2
But V1  V2
A1
2
P1  P2 V22 1  A2V2 
   
 2 2  A1 
2
P1  P2 V2  A  
 2 1   2  
 2   A1  
 
P1  P2 V22
2

 A   2
 1   2  
  A1  
 
2P1  P2 
V22 
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  
 

2P1  P2 
V2 
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  
 
the discharge are given respectively by,
Q  C d A2V2

2P1  P2 
Q  C d A2
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  
 

A2 2P1  P2 
Q  Cd
1   A2 A1 
2 

147
 Problems
Continuity Equation
3.1 Water at 0.1 m 3 s and alcohol SG  0.8 at 0.3 m 3 s are mixed in a y duct as shown in
figure. What is the average density of the mixture of alcohol and water?

3.2 A water jet pump shown in fig. involves a jet cross-sectional area of 0.01 m 2 and a jet
velocity of 30 m s, The jet is surrounded by entrained water, The total cross-sectional area
associated with the jet and entrained streams area 0.075 m 2 . these two fluid streams leave the
pump thoroughly mixed with an average velocity of 6 m s through a cross-sectional area of
0.075 m 2 . Determine the pumping flow rate involved in liters/s.

3.3 Water is flowing in at (1) into a rectangular tank “A” (1.5 m length and 1.5 m width).
The rate of flow Q1 at (1) is 0.15 m 3 / s. At the instant of interest h1 = 5 m and water is
3
flowing into tank B through (3) at the rate of 0.1 m / s. At this instant, h2 = 4 m. If the

free surface in tank B is dropping at the rate of 0.06 m / s, tank B is of length 2.5 m and
width of 1.5 m.
(i) What is the flow Q 2 at (2)?

(ii)What is the rate of change of h1 ?

148
3.5 A rectangular ditch of width 10 m has a sloping bottom as shown. Water is added at the
rate Q of 100 L / s.
(i) What is dh / dt when h =1 m ?
(ii) How long does it take for the free surface to go from h =1 m to h =1.2 m ?

3.6 A nurse is withdrawing blood from a patient as shown in figure. The piston is being
withdrawn at a speed of 0.25 in s . The piston allows air to move through its peripheral region
of clearance with the glass cylinder at the rate of 0.001 in 3 s . What is the average speed of
blood flow in the needle?

3.7 A gas flows into a rigid container initially evacuated. Assume that the inflow velocity is
uniform at 2 m s . The tube inlet diameter is 10 cm with the volume of the tank equal to
2000 liters. The pressure and temperature in the inlet line are maintained constant at
400 KPa and 330 K ; respectively. The gas can be assumed to be obey the prefect gas law

P   R T , with R  300 J kg.K . Assume the tank to be non–insulated so that the temperature

149
 of the gas remains constant at the room temperature of 300 K . Determine the time required
for the pressure in the tank to reach 300 KPa.
3.8 Air flows out from a small hole in a tank, initially filled with compressed air, at the mass

flow rate m  C  , where  is the density in the tank and C is constant. If  0 is the initial
density in a tank of a volume v . Derive a formula for the density change  t  after the hole is
opened. Apply your formula to the following case: a spherical tank of diameter 50 cm, with
initial pressure 300 KPa and temperature 1000 C , and a hole whose initial exhaust rate is
0.01 kg s . Find the time required for the air density in the tank to drop by 50%.

Energy Equation
3.9 A diver is directing a flexible pipe into which is sucked sand and water so as to expose
part of a sunken ship. If the pressure at the inlet A is close to the hydrostatic pressure of the
surrounding water, what amount of sand will be sucked up per second by a 2 kW pump? The
specific gravity of the sand and water mixture picked up is 1.8. The inside diameter of the
pipe is 250 mm.

3.10 If the pump in figure develops 3.75 kW on the flow. What is the flow rate?

150
3.11 What is the power developed by the turbine shown in figure. The mass flow rate is
500 kg s .

3.12 Water is pumped from the tank shown in Fig. (a). The head loss is known to be
1.2V 2 2 g , where V is the average velocity in the pipe. According to the pump manufacturer,

the relationship between the pump head and the flow rate is as shown in Fig. (b):
h p  20  2000Q 2 where is h p in meters and Q is in m3 Determine the flow rate, Q.

3.13 The turbine shown in Fig. develops

100 hp when the flow rate of water is
20 ft 3 s. determine:

(a) the elevation h,

(b) The pressure difference across the turbine,

151
 (c) The flow rate expected if the turbine

3.14 Oil SG  0.88 flows in an

inclined pipe at a rate of as
shown in Fig. If the
differential reading in the
mercury manometer is 3 ft,
calculate the power that the
pump supplies to the oil if
head losses are negligible

3.15 When the pump in Fig. draws

220 m 3 h of water at 20°C from

the reservoir, the total friction head

loss is 5 m. The flow discharges
through a nozzle to the
atmosphere. Estimate the pump
power in kW delivered to the
water.

3.16 The horizontal pump in Fig. discharges 20°C water at 57 m 3 h. what power in kW is
delivered to the water by the pump?

Bernoulli Equation
3.17 Water flows steadily through the large tanks shown in Figure. Determine the water depth,
hA .

152
3.18 Streams of water from two tanks impinge upon each other as shown in Figure. If point A
is a stagnation point, determine the height h.

3.19 Water flows through the branching pipe shown in figure. Determine the pressure at
section (2) and the pressure at section (3).

3.20 Water flows from a large tank through a large pipe that splits into two smaller pipes as
shown in Figure. determine the flow rate from the tank and the pressure at point (1).

153
3.21 A rectangular swimming pool is 1 m deep at one end and increases uniformly in depth to
2.6 m at the other end. The pool is 8 m wide and 32 m long and is emptied through an orifice
of area 0.224 m 2 , at the lowest point in the side of the deep end. Take Cd for the orifice as
0.6, find:

(a) The time for the depth to fall by 1 m.

(b) The time to empty the pool completely.
3.22 A vertical cylindrical tank 2 m diameter has, at the bottom, a 0.05 m diameter sharp edged
orifice for which the discharge coefficient 0.6.
(a) If water enters the tank at a constant rate of 0.0095 m3 s. Find the depth of water above the
orifice when the level in the tank becomes stable.
(b) Find the time for the level to fall from 3 m to 1 m above the orifice when the inflow is
turned off.
(c) If water now runs into the tank at 0.02 m3 s, the orifice remaining open, find the rate of rise
in water level when the level reached a depth of 1.7 m above the orifice.
3.23 A rectangular reservoir with vertical walls has a plan area 60000 m 2 . Discharge from the
reservoir take place over a rectangular weir. The flow characteristic of the weir is
Q  0.678 h1 2 m3 s , where h is the depth of water above the weir crest. The sill of the weir is

3.4 m above the bottom of the reservoir. Starting with a depth of water of 4 m in the reservoir
and no inflow, what will be the depth of water after one hour?
3.24 In order to double the flow of water through the tube and nozzle, a water pump is to be
installed in the discharge line. Determine the pump power required. Does the power
requirement depend on the location of the pump in the discharge line?

154
3.25 Water flows from the pipe shown in figure as a free jet and strikes a circular flat plate.
The flow geometry shown is axisymmetrical. Determine the flow rate and the manometer
reading, H .

3.26 A large tank contains compressed air, gasoline at specific gravity 0.68, light oil at
specific gravity 0.8, and water. The pressure P of the air is 150 kPa gage. What is the mass
flow rate from oil from a 20 mm diameter jet?

155
3.27 A venturi meter is a device which is inserted into a pipe line to measure incompressible
flow rates. It consists of a convergent section which reduces the diameter. This is followed
by a divergent section. The pressure difference between the position just before the venturi
and at the throat of the venturi is measured by a differential manometer as shown. Show that:
 A2 2P1  P2  
Q  Cd  
 1   A2 A1 2  
 

3.28 A Venturimeter with an entrance diameter of 0.3 m and a throat diameter of 0.2 m is
used to measure the volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The discharge coefficient of the
meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N m 2 ,
calculate the volume flowing when the pressure difference between the entrance and the
throat is measured as 0.06 m on a water U–tube manometer.
3.29 A Venturimeter is used for measuring flow of water along a pipe. The diameter of the
Venturi throat is two fifths the diameter of the pipe. The inlet and throat are connected by
water filled tubes to a mercury U–tube manometer. The velocity of flow along the pipe is
found to be 2.5 H m s, where H is the manometer reading in meters of mercury. Determine
the loss of head between inlet and throat of the Venturi when H is 0.49 m.
3.30 A Venturimeter is fitted in a horizontal pipe of 0.15 m diameter to measure a flow of
water which may be anything up to 240 m3 hr . The pressure head at the inlet for this flow is
18 m above atmospheric and the pressure head at the throat must not be lower than 7 m
below atmospheric. Between the inlet and the throat there is an estimated frictional loss of
10% of the difference in pressure head between those points. Calculate the minimum
allowable diameter for the throat.
3.31 A Venturimeter of throat diameter 0.076 m is fitted in a 0.152 m diameter vertical pipe in
which a liquid of relative density 0.8 flows downwards. Pressure gauges are fitted to the
inlet and to the throat sections. The throat is being 0.914 m below the inlet. Taking the
coefficient of the meter as 0.97 find the discharge

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(a) When the pressure gauges read the same.
(b) When the inlet gauge reads 15170 N m 2 higher than the throat gauges.
3.31 Calculate the discharge through the orifice of the figure below. If the diameter of the
orifice is 140 mm and discharge coefficient is 0.85.

3.32 The pump in Figure creates a 20°C water jet oriented to travel a maximum horizontal
distance. System friction head losses are 6.5 m. The jet may be approximated by the
trajectory of frictionless particles. What power must be delivered by the pump?

3.33 If the velocity at point (A) in the figure below is 18 m s , what is the pressure at point
(B).

3.34 A free liquid jet, as in Fig. has constant ambient pressure and small losses; what are
(a) The minimum and (b) the maximum values of for which the water jet will clear the corner
of the building? For which case will the jet velocity be higher when it strikes the roof of the
building?

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3.35 For the container of Fig. Use Bernoulli’s equation to derive a formula for the distance X
where the free jet leaving horizontally will strike the floor, as a function of h and H. For
what ratio h/H will X be maximum? Sketch the three trajectories for h/H= 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6

3.36 The pumper truck shown in Fig. is to deliver to a maximum elevation of 60 ft above the
hydrant. The pressure at the 4-in. diameter outlet of the hydrant is 10 psi. Determine the
power that the pump must add to the water.

3.37 A firefighter is directing water from a

hose into the broken window of a burning
house. The velocity of the water is
15 m s as leaves the hose.

(a) What are the angles  needed to do this job?

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(b) What is the water velocity impact the window?
(c) What are the angles that the water enters the house?
3.38 Water flows from a pop bottle that has
holes in it as shown in figure. Two
streams coming from holes located
distances h1 and h2 below the free surface
intersect at a distance L from the side of
the bottle. Show that L  2 h1h2 .

3.39 A large open tank contains a layer of oil floating on water as shown in Figure.
(a) Determine the height, h, to which the water will rise.
(b) Determine the water velocity in the pipe.
(c) Determine the pressure in the horizontal pipe.

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