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As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

left to right
1. Data Representation Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4
+ 2 = 238
1.1. Number Systems
Converting Denary to Binary
Binary System
Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
Base 2 number system
table like follows:
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
2 142
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
2 71 Remainder: 0
MSB (Most Significant Bit)
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system
2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9
2 2 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 1 Remainder: 0
0 Remainder: 1
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
is F is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0000 0 0 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
0001 1 1 is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0100 4 4 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
0101 5 5 denary
0110 6 6 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
1000 8 8
1001 9 9 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1010 A 10 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1011 B 11 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

1100 C 12
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1101 D 13
1110 E 14 Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1111 F 15
Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1.2. Number Conversions until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Converting Binary to Denary and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
of the number of values from the right starting from 0.
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table like this: order to get the final answer

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

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(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is

After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101 overflow.

After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD Logical Shifts

The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
or the right
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
convert the final answer to denary emptied is going to become 0

Converting Denary to Hexadecimal Explanation with Example

Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
hexadecimal as explained above 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary.
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
1+0/0+1=1
negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
third position from the right.
called overflow.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part.
complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
left-hand side to match them).
Make the MSB 1, if not already
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
above
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g.,
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
OVERFLOW -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System

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Examples: For the first 128 values, it is the same as ASCII.

Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) multiple languages and more data.
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character
uniquely identifies a device on a network) set, a collection of characters and the corresponding
Assembly languages and machine code binary codes that represent them.
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
Sound
location of the error)
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
form, it is sampled
Memory Dumps The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
where the amplitude is measured, however, it cannot be
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
when trying to trace errors.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output How is Sound Recorded
to a printer or monitor.
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
series of binary digits
less error-prone than binary.
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
of the sound wave
values and is prone to errors.

Sampling Resolution:
1.5. Text
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
ASCII resolution (aka bit depth)
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters amplitude of the sound.
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
codes memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII store the data.
values
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. Sampling Rate
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
follows: per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
0 is at 48 as fewer estimations will be done between samples.
A is at 65
a is at 97 Images
ASCII uses one byte to store the value Bitmap Images
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to Bitmap images are made up of pixels
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g. binary numbers

Colour Depth

The number of bits representing each colour is called the

Unicode colour depth.
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages, 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
thus Unicode is used to solve this problem

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 A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store 1 colour seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
(because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit multiply the result by two.)
can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when 1.7. File Types
storing an image.
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
Image Resolution
Storage of music files
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make A communications protocol that allows electronic musical
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 × instruments to interact with each other
3072 pixels. Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
those with a higher resolution. Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as MIDI device what function to perform
being pixelated. Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as (operates on 16 different channels)
compared to low-resolution ones. Examples of MIDI commands:
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music)
Computer Memories Needs a lot of memory storage

A binary digit is referred to as a BIT MP3

8 bits is a byte
4 bits is a nibble Uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert
Byte is used to measure memory size music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
IECB System (more commonly used): Done using file compression algorithms which use
Name of memory No. of Perceptual Music Shaping
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
properly
1 kibibyte (1KB) 210 1 024 bytes
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
1 mibibyte (1MB) 220 1 048 576 bytes quality too much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 gibibyte (1GB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 tibibyte (1TB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes compression algorithm
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pibibyte (1PB) 250 MP4
bytes

This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather

Conventional System: than just sound
Name of memory No. of Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Videos could be streamed without losing any real
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes discernible quality

1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
1 000 000 000 000 000 pixels per centimetre
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
Calculation of File Size
between 5 and 15
The file size of an image is calculated as: image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits) 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as: sample rate
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Compression

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Lossless File Compression Includes a method of identifying the end of the

packet
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Error-Checking methods
when the file again is uncompressed Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
Important for files where the loss of data would be data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
disastrous (spreadsheet) independently from start to end and reassembled at the
An algorithm is used to compress data receiver’s computer.
No data is lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Advantages Disadvantages
No need to create a single
Packets may be lost
Run-Length Encoding line of communication
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
busy nodes time streaming
(e.g. repeated colours in an image)
Delay at the receiver while
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. High data transmission speed the packets are being re-
ordered
characters), and the second value represents the code of
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard Easy to expand package
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 usage
98 02 99 05 100”
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated Data Transmission
units/bits
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't very good for Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g. computer to printer)
255 can be made the flag. Now 255 will be put before Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example at the same time (e.g. phone conversation where only one
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 person speaks)
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
characters is approaching simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on phone line)
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
Lossy File Compression time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data several bits (1
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary byte) are sent down several wires at the same time
bits of data like MP3 and JPEG formats
It is impossible to get the original file back once it Comparsion of Serial and Parallel data transmission
compressed
Reduces file quality Serial Parallel
In this, the resolution of the image is reduced, and colour Better for longer distances Better for short distances
depth is reduced (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
2. Data Transmission required)
Used when the size of data Used when speed is
transmitted is small necessary
2.1. Types and Methods of Data Slower Option Faster than Serial
Transmission
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Data Packets
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Packet Structure -
USB consists of:
Header
Four-wire shielded cable
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
Two wires are used for power and earth
receiver
Two wires are used in data transmission
Sequence number of the packet
Size of the packet Advantages Disadvantages
Payload
Transmission rate is less than
Contains the actual data Automatically detected
120 MB/sec
Trailer

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Advantages Disadvantages Echo Check

Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is
incorrect connections about 5 metres Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
data back to the sender for verification.
Different data transmission
The sender would compare the received and original data
rates
for errors.
Backwards compatible The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
Industry-standard occurred when sending the data or sending the data back
for verification.
2.3. Methods of Error Detection Check Digits
Parity Checks Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
the code.
Type Types -
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
Even - Even number of 1-bits
6372 typed as 6379
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
8432 typed as 842
Example (Even Parity) -

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)

Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the

The LSB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of user received the data
1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
Limitations with Parity Checks are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
is not found acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the
again.
bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
Parity Blocks If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used.
2.4. Encryption
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.

Plaintext and Ciphertext

Plaintext is the original data that is being sent

Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

Symmetric Encryption:
Checksum
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process,
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender The same key is used for both encrypting and
would calculate the checksum value using a specific decrypting the data.
algorithm. Asymmetric Encryption:
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data available to everyone whereas the private key is only
and the same algorithm used before. available to the user
The receiver would then compare the value received and The receiver would have the private key and they
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A would send the public key to the sender. The sender
request is made to re-send the data. can encrypt the message with the public key and the
data can be on decrypted using the private key.

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3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture: Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU) The Fetch-Execute Cycle
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the
memory, processor and input/output devices 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like fetched
calculations 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
signals on the control bus temporarily
4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
Busses: Carry data through components. The following are its
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
types.
the next instruction to be fetched
Address bus – unidirectional 6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – unidirectional and bi-directional Stored Program Concept:

Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Instructions are stored in the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
the processor
The following registers also exist in the architecture: Programs can be moved to and from the main memory

REGISTER ABBREVIATION DEFINITION Memory Concept

Increments the value of
Current instruction the instructions by 1 and A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
CIR
register also fetches the data and partition consists of an address and its contents e.g.
instructions.
Stores the Address of the MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
Memory address 10101010 01010110
MAR instruction, copy it, and
register
sends it to MDR
Stores the Data from the Instruction Set:
address received from the An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be
MDR Memory data register processed by a CPU and the commands are machine code
MAR and sends data to
CIR
Increments the value of 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
the instructions by 1 and
PC Program counter System’s Clock
also fetches the data and
instructions.
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
During calculations, data
ACC Accumulator computer operations. By increasing clock speed, the
is temporarily held in it
computer's processing speed is also increased. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking

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Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
for. dimensional image
It leads to multiple issues. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer The scanned images can be used in Computer Aided
would frequently crash and become unstable) Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to produce a working
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU model

Length of Data Buses Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
computer represent the passport pages
Text can be stored in ASCII format
Cache The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
-- allows faster access to the CPU camera and compared using face recognition software
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance eyes, width of nose)
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance Barcode readers/scanners

A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of

Cores
varying thicknesses
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
performance series of lines
The left and right hand sides of the barcode are separate
But if any number of cores are used, it could possibly slow using guard bars
down the system performance as the communication Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
between each core increases, and so do the data cables Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
between each. Which in turn reduces the potential system Light is reflected back off the barcode; dark areas
performance. reflect little light which allows the bars to be read
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
septa or octa cores. The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital

Quick Response (QR) Codes

3.3. Input Devices
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Two-dimensional Scanners: Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
background
Used to input hard-copy documents Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The image is converted into an electronic form which can Advantages of QR codes:
be stored in the computer
No need for the user to write down the website
Document is placed on a glass panel address
A bright light illuminates the document QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. And image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
The lens focuses the document image It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
The focused image now falls onto a charge couple shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
device (CCD) which consists of a numbers of Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
integrated circuits a light sensitive cell
Software produces a digital image from the electronic The cell is made up of pixels
form The number of pixels determines the size of the file
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Keyboards
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
Three-dimensional Scanners
digital signal

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Slow method Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible

Prone to errors infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Pointing devices detector.
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Mouse/trackball
emitted by any type of object.
Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement
level.
Microphones Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness.
Used to input sound to a computer Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm magnetic field.
vibrates, producing an electric signal Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into content wherever this sensor has been installed.
digital values and stored in a computer pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Voice recognition, voice is detected and converted into Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
digital Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
around the sensor
Touchscreens
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Capacitive (medium cost tech) temperature of the environment.
Made up of many layers of glass (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
Control of Street Lighting­­
changes
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are The light sensor sends data to the ADC
determined by an on-board microprocessor Digitised data and sends it to the microprocessor
Infra-red heat (expensive) Microprocessor samples data every minute
Use glass as the screen material If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Infra-red optical (expensive) Lamp switched on
Uses glass as screen material
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
3.4. Output Devices
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Inkjet Printers
Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass Used to print one-off pictures and documents
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
bottom layer complete a circuit 1. Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a 2. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct
microprocessor, determine where the screen was format
touched 3. Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer
is available
Sensors 4. Data is sent to printer, and stored in a temporary
memory (printer buffer)
Devices that read or measure physical properties
5. A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper
Data needs to be converted to digital
is available in the paper tray
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical
6. The print head moves across paper printing
values into digital
text/image, four ink colours sprayed in the exact
Sensors and their purposes:
amount
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that
7. Paper is advanced, so next line is printed
converts sound to electric pulses.
8. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
9. Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
processor (request for more data to be sent)
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any Laser Printers
gas in the environment.
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Used to print flyers, high quality
the air or any sample.

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Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
produce text and images which supplies the light source
Prints the whole page in one go
Light Projectors:
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum Two common types of light projectors:
rotates, a the laser beam is scanned across it, Digital Light Projector (DLP)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD Projector
charged areas which match the text/image Projectors are used to project computer output onto
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner; larger screens/interactive whiteboards
it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Uses millions of micromirrors
produce a copy of the page the number of micromirrors and the way they are
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent image
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
the drum, ready to print next page are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
3D Printers
they are off
Used for models of cars This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
Produce solid objects that work A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic on its way to the DLP chip
powder White light splits into primary colours
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
LCD Projectors
2D and 3D Cutters
Older technology than DLP
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal, metal, wood This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
coated mirrors; these reflect the light back at different
Actuators wavelengths
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
processes. These three different lights pass through three LCD
Used in many control applications involving sensors and screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
devices (ADC and DAC) millions of pixels in grayscale
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Loudspeakers/Headphones
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
DAC then through an amplifier and then emerges from the screen
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal

Display (LCD), these tiny diodes are grouped together in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because: Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
Primary vs. Secondary Storage
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL The CPU directly accesses primary storage

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The CPU does not directly access secondary storage Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples expensive
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
examples data.

Primary Memory: Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random Access Memory (RAM)
Features of ROM
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
access data immediately that is actively being used or even when ROM is turned off)
processed by the user. Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
Features of RAM systems)
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
turned off) cannot be changed
Used to store; data, files
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of Secondary Storage:
the memory can be changed Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
will operate
of the disks (platter)
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
surfaces of the disk
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
new data
store the data
RAM is of two types:
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Non-volatile rewritable memory
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Virtual memory More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Lower power consumption
memory management; thus, the system has a high Run much cooler than HDDs
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into Very thin
the picture. Data access is faster than HDD
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
storages are discussed below)
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
capacity (two individual recording layers)

Blu-ray Disks

You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
The main advantages of virtual memory are The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
They can be larger than the physical memory provided (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
in the RAM. Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
piracy and copyright infringement)

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Used as backup systems Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi

link
USB Flash Memories
< centre>Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files systems
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Advantages Disadvantages
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
Small in size, therefore can
Can be difficult to upgrade
Cloud Storage: easily fit into devices
The interface can be
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
stored on remote servers
Troubleshooting is a
The same data is stored on more than one server in case Requires very little power
specialist’s job
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
The following are its types: to upgrade and faults are
input
» Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the harder to find
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only
companies are thrown away
» Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Any computerised system is
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as
a single entity Applications of Embedded devices -
» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above GPS systems
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and Security Systems
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from Vending Machines
a public cloud storage provider Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to

3.6. Embedded Systems connect to a network (such as the internet).

Combination of Hardware and Software which is designed Media Access Control (MAC)
to carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain - A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
peripherals on one single chip manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
serial number.
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports,
These do not change and are primarily constant for every
storage and memory
device
Process of Embedded Devices -
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
microprocessor The only difference between the two types are that UAA is
Microprocessor then sends signals to actuators which made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
is the output opposite for LAA.
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
need a software update. IP Addresses
Programmable devices have two methods of updating -
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading IP address allocation:
the update The network allocates IP addresses.
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.

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Static IP addresses: The router receives data packets from devices on the
Assigned manually to a device. local network and forwards them to the internet.
Does not change over time. It also receives incoming data packets from the
Dynamic IP addresses: internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host on the local network.
Configuration Protocol) server.
Changes periodically or when the device connects to a
different network. 4. Software
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Widely used protocol. 4.1. Types of Software
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated
by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). 1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. programs and device drivers
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): 2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. processor etc.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated
by colons (e.g., System Software:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Provides an extremely large number of unique these are a set of programs which control and manage
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). the operations of hardware
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: gives a platform for other software to run
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 it is required to allow hardware and software to run
uses a 128-bit address. without problems
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated using Application Software:
DHCP or manually, while IPv6 addresses are primarily
assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
computer’s resources
Routers maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite
of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
Router functionality: user can execute the software as and when they require,
A router is a networking device that directs data and is mostly not automatic
packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
Examples
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
System Software:
A router examines the destination IP address of
incoming data packets.
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
next router on the path to the destination.
tasks without re-compilation.
The router forwards the data packet to the
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into
appropriate next hop.
a single program, allowing the use of separately written
Router's role in IP address assignment:
code modules in the final program.
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
communicate with a computer's operating system,
devices on a local network.
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
work.
predefined range to connected devices.
Operating system: Software that manages basic
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
computer functions such as input/output operations,
and simplifies network management.
program loading and running, and security management,
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
making computers more user-friendly.
A router serves as the gateway between a local
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
network and the internet.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
It connects the local network to an internet service
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
provider (ISP) network.
management, and security.

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Application Software: Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files

needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and the microprocessor to handle the issues.
importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
calculations.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
hold records and fields. Provides the ability to query and
report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a 4.2. Utility Software
table.
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to Computer users have access to utility programs as part of
interface with sensors and allow a computer or system software
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
control applications by comparing sensor data with stored background without user input
data and altering process parameters accordingly. Common utility programs include virus checkers,
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging file compression and management software, backup
from games to sophisticated software such as phone software, security tools, and screensavers.
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities. Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos, Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast, protecting computers from malware.
They should be kept up to date and run in the background
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
transitions between clips. to maintain their effectiveness.
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap loaded and compares possible viruses against a database
of known viruses.
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines, Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that
are not yet on the database.
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
Interrupts deletion or for the user to decide.
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either constantly discovered.
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily. dormant viruses.
Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
Disk Defragmentation Software
Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
intervals. a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in access time.
the microprocessor's activities. As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
address the hardware problem. movements to find the data.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
system's operation. become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.

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A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store number that allow the operating system to identify the
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for device.
faster data access and retrieval. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
The defragmentation process can free up previously devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
occupied sectors and empty some tracks. computer simultaneously.

Backup Software 4.3. Operating Systems

Backup software is a utility software that helps create and
Operating Systems are designed to establish
manage backup copies of data files and programs.
communication between the user and the computer
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
Functions of a typical operating system -
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
-managing files
utilities are also recommended.
– handling interrupts
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
– providing an interface
files if changes have been made to them.
– managing peripherals and drivers
There could be three file versions for total security: the
– managing memory
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
– managing multitasking
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
– providing a platform for running applications
on cloud storage.
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
Security Software
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
Security software is a utility software that manages Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
such as virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
prevent unauthorized access.
Security software uses encryption and decryption to
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
decryption key.
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.

Screensavers

Screensavers display moving and still images on the

monitor screen after a period of computer inactivity. Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors Second Edition (Hodder Education)
from 'phosphor burn'.
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
device and as a part of computer security systems.
Security Management - Providing security features such
They are used to automatically log out the user after a
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
certain period of inactivity.
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
Renaming, and many more functions
Device Drivers
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
with each of the processes
Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
understood by the hardware device they are associated
users to customise their account individually.
with.
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
Running of Applications
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
by the operating system.
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
through the bootstrap loader.
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial

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The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer Write code that doesn’t take up much space
the location of the OS in the storage. Write code that runs very quickly
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

Translators
Compiler

Translates a program written in a high-level language into

machine code
Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
Interrupts One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
Used for general use
doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Interpreter
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
It can be generated by peripherals like a keyboard & Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
mouse No executable file of machine code produced
Different interrupts have different levels of priority One high-level language program statement may require
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process several machine code instructions to be executed.
continues Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
interpreter
4.4. Programming Languages, Used when the program is being developed

Translators and IDEs Assembler

Computers can only understand machine code; therefore, Translates a low-level language program into machine
code
translators are needed
Executable file of machine code produced
High-Level Languages One low-level language translated into one machine code
instructions
It is easier to read and understand as the language is It can be used without an assembler
closer to human language. Used for general use
Easier to write in a shorter time
Easier to debug at the development stage Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Easier to maintain once in use Executes a high-
Translates a high- Translates a low-
level language
Low-Level Languages level language level assembly
program one
program into language program
Refer to machine code statement at a
machine code. into machine code.
Binary instructions that the computer understands time.
An executable file No executable file An executable file
of machine code is of machine code is of machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level One low-level
language program
language language
statement may
statement can be statement is usually
require several
translated into translated into one
machine code
several machine machine code
instructions to be
code instructions. instruction.
executed.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Interpreted Assembled
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) Compiled programs
programs cannot programs are used
Assembly Language are run without the
be run without the without the
compiler.
Few programmers use assembly language to - interpreter. assembler.
Make use of special hardware

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Compiler Interpreter Assembler HTTP and HTTPS

A compiled An interpreter is An assembled
program is usually often used when a program is usually HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
distributed for program is being distributed for stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
general use. developed. general use.
data.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Web Browsers
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
It is software used to connect to the internet
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) It translates the HTML code
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
An IDE would usually have these features -
Offers additional features like search history & ad
Code Editor
blockers
Translator
Debugger Retrieval and Location of web pages
Error Reports
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
Auto-Documenter (DNS)
Pretty Printing DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
5. The Internet and Its Uses Browser interprets the HTML

5.1. The Internet and the World Wide Cookies

Web Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer

They are used to track data about the users and autofill
Internet World Wide Web (WWW) forms or give suggestions accordingly
Uses transmission protocols Types of Cookies -
Collection of webpages and
such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Protocols)
Remembers the user’s login
Allows the user to Temporary cookies are stored
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that details so the user doesn’t
communicate with other in the RAM till the browser is
are written using Hypertext have to log in every time they
users via chat, email, calling closed.
Mark-up Language (HTML) visit a website
and more
Stored on the hard disk on the
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Doesn’t collect any
computer until their expiry
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the information on the user
date or the user deletes them
Devices location of the web pages
A good example is the virtual
Web browsers can access
shopping basket on e-
web pages.
commerce websites.

Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)

5.2. Digital Currency
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
typical format of URLs is - Form of payment to pay for goods and services
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
protocol://website address/path/file name Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
centralised banking systems.
The website address would contain -
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
domain host (www)
transactions.
domain name (website name)
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
Blockchain Network
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
The path would usually become the file directory roots. for
Blockchain Network
example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
The /computer-science is the file name

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Blockchain Network involves several interconnected Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
computers where the transaction data is stored
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be changed network
without the consent of all the network members Usually temporary but may be damaging
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
How do blockchains work Accessing their emails
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The Accessing websites
block would contain - Accessing online services

Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of Hacking

money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in Effect:
the chain This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious

Malware
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to
any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) Stands for Malicious Software, A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
5.3. Cyber Security intention of deleting or corrupting files, cause
computer malfunction
Brute Force Attack: Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
certain amount of money is paid
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Effect: legitimate software
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
cards, passwords and more) user to the attacker
To remove risk: Worms - Programs that can replicate itself with the
Use stronger passwords with more characters and intention of corrupting the entire network instead of
symbols
the computer alone
Data Interception: Phishing
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
wireless transmission line into giving out their information.
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless To remove risk:
internet connections illegally Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine Use anti-phishing tools
packets sent over a line, all the data collected is sent Block pop-up ads
back to the attacker Have an up-to-date browser
Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash Pharming
Can delete or corrupt files/data
To remove risk: The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Install anti-virus software which redirects the user to fake websites
Don’t use software from unknown sources Effect:
Be careful when opening emails from unknown The user gives out login details and other personal
details

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To remove risk: Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the

Using anti-virus software user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully Filtering Internet traffic
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
URL bar Blocking access to certain websites
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy server
Social Engineering keeping the web server safe.
Acts as a firewall as well.
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
user’s profile
informing that their account has been hacked)
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
communicating with other users on the internet.
Keeping data safe from threats

Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for

different people (for example - Only doctors can have
6. Automated and Emerging
access to patient’s data)
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks
Technologies
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), 6.1. Automated Systems
biometrics and more)
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method hardware designed to function without human
Biometric intervention.
Benefits Drawbacks
Methods Process of Automated Systems -
Most development Intrusive as used to Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
Method are very easy identify criminals, microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
Fingerprint
to use, Requires very Can’t be used if the has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
Scans
low storage to store finger gets dirty or (ADC)
the biometric data. damaged (e.g. cuts) The microprocessor processes the data and makes
With very high It is very intrusive, the necessary decisions based on its program
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify, The actions are then executed by the actuators
Retina Scan (Motors, wheels and so on)
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install
retina and set up
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
Can’t identify if there Advantages Disadvantages
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
Expensive to set up and
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age Faster and Safer
maintain
or person’s age.
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems
Voices can be
quickly are prone to attacks
recorded and used for
verification, low Over-reliance on automated
Non-Intrusive method, Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans
accuracy, and
Voice verification is done to lose skills
illnesses such as cold
Recognition quickly and relatively
or cough can affect a Higher Productivity and
cheaper
person’s voice making Efficiency
identification
impossible. You should be able to describe the advantages and
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of scenario.
authentication to prove who the user is Including scenarios from:
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain – industry
patches which improve device security – transport
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong – agriculture
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and – weather
the tone would also seem urgent – gaming
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the – lighting
traffic between a network and the user’s computer – science

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a

6.2. Robotics
human when doing one specific task
Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
robot design, construction and operation.
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
human in many tasks
A robot may not injure a human through action or
Characteristics of AI -
inaction
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
comes into conflict with Law 1
Ability to learn and adapt
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with law
1.
Characteristics of a robot -
Types of AI
Ability to sense their surroundings
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
Have a degree of movement
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
Programmable
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO They have many applications, including chatbots,
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
CHARACTERISTICS and so on

Types of Robots - Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Independent - Have no human intervention; they can Advantages Disadvantages
completely replace humans Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an are very high
interface, can supplement but can’t completely Can only rely on the
replace humans High Accuracy and Consistent
information in the system

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots Tend to give cold responses

High response times
Advantages Disadvantages sometimes

Robots can find it difficult to

Robots can work 24/7 Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines are
do non-standard tasks
trained to learn from past experiences.
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
conditions unemployment Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots AI Machine Learning
long run replace humans in some task Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
They have high productivity Expensive to install and decisions without being
intelligence in machines
and are more consistent maintain in the short run programmed to
Robots have the risk of getting The aim is to make machines
The aim is to build machines
hacked. learn through data
that think like humans
acquisitions

6.3. Artificial Intelligence

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -

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