CHAPTER #3

Reproduction is the production of young ones by an organism. Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1) male REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It consists of paired testes, Accessory ducts,
Accessory glands & external genitalia (penis).

PAIRED TESTES

Primary sex organs that produce sperms Seminiferous tubule is lined internally
& testosterone. with spermatogonia

Testes are formed within the abdomen. Sertoli cells give shape and nourishment
Soon after the birth or at the 8th month to developing spermatogonia (male germ
of pregnancy they descent into the cells) and Sertoli cells (supporting cells).
scrotal sac (scrotum) through inguinal
canal.
The regions outside the seminiferous
tubules (Interstitial cells) contain small
The low temperature of scrotum (2-2.5 blood vessels, interstitial cells (Leydig
degree Celsius less than the body cells) and immunologically competent
temperature) helps for proper functioning cells.
of testes and for spermatogenesis.

Each testis is oval shaped. Length: 4-5 Leydig cells secrete testicular hormones
cm, width: 2-3 cm (androgens).

Each testis has about 250 testicular Each lobule contains 1-3 coiled
lobules. seminiferous tubules.

Accessory ducts (Duct system)

Include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens. They conduct sperms from testis as
follows:

rete testis vasa efferentia - epididymis

Seminiferous (series of fine (stores sperms
tubules (irregular
cavities) tubules) temporarily)

join with duct of

urethral seminal vesicle to vas
meatus urethra form common deferens
ejaculatory duct

Urethra receives ducts of prostate and Cowper’s glands.

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 Accessory glands
o Include a prostate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles and a pair of Cowper's glands (bulbo-urethral glands).
o Their collective secretion (seminal plasma) is rich in fructose, Ca and enzymes.
o Seminal plasma + sperms - semen
o Functions of seminal plasma:

1 2 3 4
Provides Secretions of
Helps for Supplies alkalinity to Cowper’s
transporting nutrients to counteract the glands
sperms. sperms. acidity of lubricate the
uterus. penis.

o Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle & prostate help for maturation and motility of sperms.

Penis (external genitalia)

o It is a copulatory organ made of erectile spongy tissue.
Prepare Circumcision
Friction PS
When spongy tissue The cone-shaped tip Ejaculation Sum
is filled with blood, of the penis is
the penis erects. It called glans penis.
facilitates It is covered by
insemination. prepuse (foreskin).
E

2. Female Reproductive System

o It includes Ovaries, Accessory ducts & External genitalia.

Paired ovaries
Primary sex organs which produce ova (female gamete)
& steroid ovarian hormones (estrogen & progesterone).

Each ovary is 2-4 cm in length.

They are located on both side of the lower abdomen

and connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by
ligaments.

Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which

encloses the ovarian stroma.

The stroma has outer cortex and inner medulla.

Ovary contains groups of cells (Ovarian follicles). Each

follicle carries a centrally placed ovum

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 Accessory ducts (Duct system)
Include 2 oviducts (Fallopian tubes), a uterus & vagina. cervix

oviducts
o Each oviduct (10-12 cm long) has 3parts:

Infundibulum Ampula Isthmus

Funnel-shaped opening
provided with many Wider part. Narrow part. It
finger-like Fimbriae. It joins the uterus.
helps to collect the ovum. siteoffertilization

o The ciliated epithelium lined the lumen of the oviduct drives the ovum towards the uterus.

uterus (womb)
o It is inverted pear shaped. It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
o Uterus has 3 parts-

1 Upper fundus
2 middle body
3 terminal
cervix

o Cervix opens to Vagine.

o The uterine wall has 3 layers:

Perimetrium: Myometrium: Endometrium:

External thin Middle thick layer Inner glandular &
membrane of smooth muscle. vascular layer.

vagina
It opens to the exterior between urethra & anus. The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich mucous
membrane consisting of sensitive papillae & Bartholin’s glands. Bartholin’s glands secrete mucus that
lubricates the penis during sexual act.

External genitalia (vulva or pudendum)

o Consist of Mons pubis, vestibule, hymen & clitoris.
o Mons pubis: A cushion of fatty tissue covered by pubic hair.
o vestibule: A median channel. It includes:

Labia Majora: Large, fleshy,

fatty and hairy outer folds. Labia minora: Small, thin and
Surrounds vaginal opening. hairless inner folds.

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 o Hymen (Maiden head) - A membrane which partially cover the vaginal opening. It is often torn during the
first coitus.It may also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon; active
participation in some sports items etc. In some women, hymen persists after coitus. So the hymen is not
a reliable indicator of virginity.

o Clitoris: A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of the urethral opening

Mammary glands (breasts)

A pair of mammary glands contains glandular tissue & fat. Milkproduction
Prolaction
Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20 mammary
lobes containing clusters of cells mammary alveoli. Progesterone

Milkletdown oxytocin

Cells of alveoli secrete milk. It is stored in lumen

of alveoli.

The alveoli open into mammary tubules

The tubules of each lobe join to form a

mammary duct

Several mammary ducts join to form a wider

mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous
duct through which milk is sucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS
o It is the formation of gametes in the gonads.
o It is 2 types: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis
It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in seminiferous tubules of testis. It has 2 stages:

Formation of spermatids
In this, Spermatogonia (Sperm mother cells or immature male germ cells) produce spermatids.

Spermiogenesis Release
ofsperm from Sertolicell
Spermatids transform into sperms. Spermiation

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 Schematic representation of Spermatogenesis

Spermatogonia-2n
(46 chromosomes)
Puberty
Mitosis differentiation

Primary
spermatocytes - (2n)

1st meiotic division

Secondary
spermatocytes-n (23)

2nd meiotic division

Spermatids (n)

Differentiation

Spermatoza (n)

o 4 spermatids are formed from each primary spermatocyte.

o After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells. Then they are released to lumen
of seminiferous tubules. It is called spermiation

Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis

o Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
o GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete 2 and gonadotropins such as Luteinizing hormone (LH)

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

ABI
LH acts on the Leydig
FSH acts on the
cells and stimulates
secretion of Sertoli cells and
androgens. Androgens stimulates secretion É
stimulate the of some factors for
spermatogenesis. the spermiogenesis.

mm

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 Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)
o A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.
o A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
o A sperm has 3 regions:
ProximalCentriole Nick

a) Head: Oval b) Middle piece: c) Tail: Consists of a

shaped. Formed of Composed of axial central axial
nucleus & acrosome. filament surrounded filament. The sperm
Acrosome is formed by mitochondria & moves in fluid
from Golgi complex. cytoplasm. medium and female
It contains lytic Mitochondria genital tract by the
enzymes. Behind the produce energy for undulating movement
head is a neck. the sperm motility. of the tail.
KernSheath
Webern

o Man ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during a coitus.

o For normal fertility, at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size.
o 40% of them must show vigorous motility.

Oogenesis
It is the process of formation and maturation of ovum.

It takes place in Graaflan follicles.

Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage when millions of egg

mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each ovary.

No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.

Oogonia multiply to form primary oocytes. They enter prophase-I

of the meiosis and get temporarily arrested at that stage.
diplotone
Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa
cells to form primary follicle.

Many primary follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to

puberty. Therefore, at puberty, only 60,000 - 80,000 primary
follicles are left in each ovary.

The primary oocyte in

The secondary follicles
Primary follicles tertiary follicle grows and
transform into a tertiary undergoes first unequal
get surrounded by follicle. It has a fluid
more layers of meiotic division to form a
filled cavity (antrum). large secondary oocyte
granulosa cells and
The theca layer (n) & a tiny first polar
a new theca to
form secondary forms an inner theca body (n). So, secondary
follicle. interna and an outer oocyte retains nutrient
theca outerna rich cytoplasm of primary
oocyte.

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It is unknown Graafian follicle
The tertiary
that whether Secondary now ruptures to
follicle further
the first polar oocyte forms release the
changes into
body divides a new secondary oocyte
the mature
further or membrane from the ovary.
follicle
degenerates. This is called
OVULATION

Schematic representation of oogenesis

OOGENESIS oogonia -2n
(46 chromosomes)

Mitosis differentiation
(at foetal stage)

Primary oocyte-2n
(grows insize)

1st meiotic division

(prior to ovulation)

Primary oocyte-n &

first polar body (n)

2nd meiotic division

(during fertilization)

Ovum (n) & second

Polar body (n)

Structure of ovum (egg)

o Spherical and non-motile.
o About 02 mm in diameter.
o Ovum has 3 membranes:

Plasma Membrane: Innermost

layer.

Zona pellucida: Outer to the

plasma membrane.

Corona radiata: Outer layer

formed of follicle cells

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 spermatogenesis & OOgenesis - a comparison

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Occurs in testis Occurs in ovary

Limited growth phase Elaborated growth phase

Each primary spermatocyte gives 4 sperms Each primary oocyte gives 1 ovum

No polar body formation Polar bodies are formed

Begins at puberty & extends up to selinity Begins at embryonic stage but suspends upto
puberty. It ceases around the age of fifty.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

It is the cyclic events starting from one menstruation till the next during the reproductive
period (from puberty to menopause) of a woman’s life.
Start Menarche
Its duration is 28 to 29 days.

Menstrual cycle is also seen in other primates.

Menstrual cycle includes Ovarian cycle (changes in ovary) & Uterian cycle (changes in uterus,
oviduct & vagina). - Menstrual cycle has the following phases

a) Menstrual phase: b) Follicular (Proliferative)

1 - 5th day phase: 5 13th day

The cycle starts with menstrual flow It starts from 5th day after menstruation &
(bleeding) completed within 8-12 days.
It lasts for 3-5 days. In this phase, the action of gonadotropins
Menstruation occurs if the released ovum (FSH &LH) from pituitary occurs. FSH
is not fertilized. It results in breakdown of stimulates
endometrial lining and uterine blood Development of primary follicles into
vessels that comes out through vagina. Graafian follicles.
Lack of menstruation indicates pregnancy. Secretion of oestrogens by Graafian follicles.
It may also be caused due to stress, poor Proliferation of ruptured uterine
health etc. endometrium and mucus lining of oviduct &
Menarche - The first menstruation during vagina.
puberty. o Development of secondary sexual
characters.
o Suppression of FSH secretion.
o Secretion of LH (Luteinizing hormone).

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c) Ovulatory phase: 14th day
o LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle.
o Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge) induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby ovulation (on 14th day).

d) Secretory (Luteal) phase: 15-28th day

o After ovulation, Graafian follicle is transformed into a
yellow endocrine mass called Corpus luteum. It
secretes progestrone.
Paleyellow
o Functions of progestrone:

Makes the endometrium

Inhibits the FSH
maximum vascular, thick
secretion to prevent
and soft. Thus, the
development of a
uterus gets ready for
second ovarian follicle.
implantation.

LHHelps in maintaining Corpus

luteum
o If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates. It causes disintegration of endometrium.
It leads to next menstruation and new cycle.
o If a woman becomes pregnant, all events of menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation.
o Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age. It is called Menopause.

FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

o During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It is called insemination.
o Fusion of a sperm with ovum is called fertilization. It occurs in Ampullary-isthmic junction of fallopian tube.

r ngion

cervical
1 Sperms
2 vagina
3 canal 4 uterus
5 isthmus

isthmic
3 Fertilization 2 Ampullary 1 Junction

1 Ovum (from
ovary) 2 fimbriae
3 infundibulum 4 ampulla

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 Fertilization happens only if ovum and sperms are The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a
transported simultaneously. So all copulations do morula.
not lead to fertilization & pregnancy. i week

Morula continues to divide and transforms into

A sperm contacts with zona pellucida. It induces blastocyst.
changes in the membrane that block entry of
additional sperms.
In blastocyst, blastomeres are arranged into
trophoblast (outer layer) and an inner cell mass
attached to trophoblast.
The secretions of the acrosome help sperm to
enter the egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida &
plasma membrane. This causes second meiotic The trophoblast layer gives nourishment to
division of secondary oocyte to form an ovum inner cell mass. Also, it gets attached to
(ootid) and a second polar body. endometrium.

After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly

The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse and cover the blastocyst. Thus, the blastocyst
together to form a diploid zygote. becomes embedded in the endometrium. This is
called implantation.

Zygote undergoes mitotic division (cleavage) as it The inner cell mass gets differentiated to 3
moves through the isthmus towards the uterus germ cells. (outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm
and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called & inner endoderm). This 3-layered structure
blastomeres. (gastrula) forms the embryo.

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

After implantation, finger-like projections (chorionic villi)
appear on the trophoblast which is surrounded by the uterine
tissue and maternal blood.

The chorionic villi & Placenta is

uterine tissue are
connected to the
interdigitated to form
embryo by an
placenta. It is a
It transports
UMBIICALCORD
structural and
functional unit b/w substances to and
embryo (foetus) and from the embryo.
maternal body

Functions of placenta
Acts as barrier between the foetus and mother.
Supply O 2 nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
Remove CO 2 and excretory wastes from foetus.
Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL)

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 Oestrogens, progesterone and relaxin
Relaxin is also secreted by ovary.

During pregnancy, levels of estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin etc. are also increased in
maternal blood. They support the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintain pregnancy.

The germ layers give rise to all tissues (organs). The stem cells in inner cell mass have the potency to
give rise to all the tissues and organs.

Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months (for cats: 2 months, dogs: 2 months, elephants: 21
months)

Changes in embryo during pregnancy

End of 12 weeks (first

1 2 3
End of second trimester): The major
After one month: month: organs (limbs,
Heart is informed Limbs and digits are external genital
developed. organs etc.) are well
developed.

End of 24 weeks
During 5th month:

4 5 6
(second trimester)
First movement of End of 9 months:
Body is covered with
foetus and Ready for
fine hair, eyelids
appearance of hair delivery.
separate and eye
on the head.
lashes are formed.

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition (labour): Process of giving birth to After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.
young ones.

Parturition is induced by neuroendocrine

The placenta & remnants of umbilical cord are
mechanism.
expelled from the maternal body after
parturition. It is called "after birth".
The signals originating from the foetus and
placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal
ejection reflex). This causes the release of The mammary glands produce milk towards
oxytocin from maternal pituitary. the end of pregnancy. It is called lactation.

Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle - The yellowish milk produced during the initial
contractions which in turn stimulate further few days of lactation is called colostrum. It
secretion of oxytocin. This process is continued contains several antibodies essential to
leading to expulsion of the baby out of the develop resistance for the new born babies.
uterus through the birth canal.
IgA
Preformed antibody present is IgA

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