COS101COS101COS101COS101COS1

DEPARTMENT OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE - YSU
COS101

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LECTURE NOTE
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ON

01COS101COS101COS101COS101CO
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: COS101
S101COS101COS101COS101COS101
COS101COS101COS101COS101COS1
01COS101COS101COS101COS101CODepartment of Computer Science,
Yobe State University,
Damaturu – Nigeria

S101COS101COS101COS101COS101 2025

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01COS101COS101COS101COS101CO
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DEPARTMENT OF COS101
COMPUTER SCIENCE - YSU

COS101 - Introduction to Computing Sciences (3 Units C: LH 30; PH 45)

Course Content:
Brief history of computing. Description of the basic components of a computer/computing device.
Input/Output devices and peripherals. Hardware, software and human ware. Diverse and growing
computer/digital applications. Information processing and its roles in society. The Internet, its
applications and its impact on the world today. The different areas/programs of the computing
discipline. The job specializations for computing professionals. The future of computing.

Lab Work:
Practical demonstration of the basic parts of a computer. Illustration of different operating systems
of different computing devices including desktops, laptops, tablets, smart boards and smart phones.
Demonstration of commonly used applications such as word processors, spreadsheets,
presentation software and graphics. Illustration of input and output devices including printers,
scanners, projectors and smartboards. Practical demonstration of the Internet and its various
applications. Illustration of browsers and search engines. How to access online resources.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:

i. explain basic components of computers and other computing devices;

ii. describe the various applications of computers;
iii. explain information processing and its roles in the society;
iv. describe the Internet, its various applications and its impact;
v. explain the different areas of the computing discipline and its specializations; and
vi. demonstrate practical skills on using computers and the internet.

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DEPARTMENT OF COS101
COMPUTER SCIENCE - YSU

TABLE OF CONTENTS

COS101 - Introduction to Computing Sciences (3 Units C: LH 30; PH 45) ........................................... 2

Course Content:................................................................................................................................ 2

Lab Work: ......................................................................................................................................... 2

Learning Outcomes: ......................................................................................................................... 2

LESSON 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 7

Definition of Computer: ................................................................................................................... 7

Methods of Data Processing: ........................................................................................................... 7

1. Manual Method..................................................................................................................... 7

2. Mechanical Method .............................................................................................................. 8

3. Computer Method ................................................................................................................. 8

Characteristics of Computer............................................................................................................. 8

1. Speed ..................................................................................................................................... 8

2. Accuracy ................................................................................................................................ 9

3. Storage Capability.................................................................................................................. 9

4. Reliability ............................................................................................................................... 9

5. Automation............................................................................................................................ 9

6. Versatility............................................................................................................................. 10

LESSON 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 11

The Evolution of Computing Devices ............................................................................................. 11

LESSON 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Classification of Computers:........................................................................................................... 14

1. Classification based on generation (hardware and software) ............................................ 14

(i) Analog Computers........................................................................................................ 14

(ii) Digital Computers ........................................................................................................ 15

(iii) Hybrid Computers ........................................................................................................ 15

2. Classification based on size (capacity) ................................................................................ 16

(i) Super Computers ......................................................................................................... 16

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(ii) Mainframe Computers ................................................................................................. 17

(iii) Mini computers ............................................................................................................ 18

(iv) Micro computers .......................................................................................................... 18

3. Classification based on purpose (function) ......................................................................... 19

(i) Special Purpose Computers ......................................................................................... 19

(ii) General-Purpose Computers ....................................................................................... 19

4. Classification based on make (manufacturer)..................................................................... 20

(i) Branded computers ..................................................................................................... 20

(ii) Clone Computers.......................................................................................................... 20

LESSON 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 22

Basic Applications of Computer ..................................................................................................... 22

1. Home ................................................................................................................................... 22

2. Medical Field ....................................................................................................................... 22

3. Entertainment ..................................................................................................................... 22

4. Industry................................................................................................................................ 22

5. Education ............................................................................................................................. 22

6. Government ........................................................................................................................ 23

7. Banking ................................................................................................................................ 23

8. Business ............................................................................................................................... 23

9. Training ................................................................................................................................ 23

10. Arts ................................................................................................................................... 23

11. Science and Engineering .................................................................................................. 23

LESSON 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 24

Components of Computer System ................................................................................................. 24

1. Input Unit ............................................................................................................................ 24

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) ............................................................................................. 24

3. Output unit .......................................................................................................................... 25

Input Devices .................................................................................................................................. 25

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1. Keyboard ............................................................................................................................. 26

2. Mouse .................................................................................................................................. 26

3. Light Pen .............................................................................................................................. 27

4. Trackball .............................................................................................................................. 28

5. Joystick ................................................................................................................................ 28

6. Scanners .............................................................................................................................. 28

7. Optical Mark Reader............................................................................................................ 29

8. Optical Character Reader .................................................................................................... 29

9. Barcode Reader ................................................................................................................... 29

10. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition ............................................................................... 30

11. Voice Recognition Systems .............................................................................................. 30

12. Digital Cameras ................................................................................................................ 31

Output Devices ............................................................................................................................... 31

1. Monitor (Visual Display Unit) .............................................................................................. 31

2. Printer .................................................................................................................................. 32

(i) Laser Printer ................................................................................................................. 33

(ii) Ink-Jet Printer ............................................................................................................... 33

(iii) Dot Matrix Printer ........................................................................................................ 33

(iv) Line Printer ................................................................................................................... 33

(v) Plotter .......................................................................................................................... 33

3. Speaker ................................................................................................................................ 34

LESSON 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 35

Computer Memory ......................................................................................................................... 35

1. Primary Memory or Main Memory ..................................................................................... 35

(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) .................................................................................. 36

(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM) ........................................................................................... 36

2. Secondary Memory ............................................................................................................. 36

3. Cache Memory .................................................................................................................... 38

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Memory Units................................................................................................................................. 38

LESSON 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Parts of Computer System.............................................................................................................. 39

1. Hardware ............................................................................................................................. 39

Components of System Unit .................................................................................................. 39

2. Software .............................................................................................................................. 43

LESSON 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 49

Data Communication, Network and Internet ................................................................................ 49

1. Data communication ........................................................................................................... 49

(i) Components of Data Communication ......................................................................... 49

(ii) Data Representation .................................................................................................... 50

2. Computer Network.............................................................................................................. 50

(i) Type of Network Connection ....................................................................................... 50

(ii) Types of networks ........................................................................................................ 51

(iii) Interconnecting devices ............................................................................................... 51

(iv) Protocols ...................................................................................................................... 52

(v) Network Topologies ..................................................................................................... 52

3. The Concept of the Internet ................................................................................................ 56

(i) History of Internet........................................................................................................ 56

(ii) Benefits of the Internet................................................................................................ 57

(iii) Internet Services .......................................................................................................... 62

LESSON 9 ............................................................................................................................................ 64

Computing Specializations ............................................................................................................. 64

LESSON 10 .......................................................................................................................................... 67

The future of computing ................................................................................................................ 67

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DEPARTMENT OF COS101
COMPUTER SCIENCE - YSU

LESSON 1
Definition of Computer:
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data(input) from the user, processes it, produces
results/information(output), displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.

In other words, a computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give
required information. It is capable of:

i. taking input data through the keyboard (input unit);

ii. storing the input data in a memory, hard disk or other medium;
iii. processing it at the central processing unit (CPU) and;
iv. giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU).

Figure 1: Schematic diagram to define a computer

Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further information
regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and figures".

Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the data
and convert into information, a computer is used.

Methods of Data Processing:

The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the
years:

1. Manual method.
2. Mechanical method.
3. Computer method.

1. Manual Method
The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil etc. These devices
or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data
or information. The manual data processing operations entail considerable manual efforts. Thus,
manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring, frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore, the

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processing of data by the manual method is likely to be affected by human errors. The manual
method does not allow for the processing of large volume of data on a regular and timely basis.

2. Mechanical Method
The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such as typewriter, adding
machines and the like. These machines facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying,
manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The mechanical operations are noisy,
hazardous, error prone and untidy. The mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large
volume of data continuously and timely.

3. Computer Method
The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following major features:

a. Data can be steadily and continuously processed.

b. The operations are practically not noisy.
c. There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and permanently.
d. Errors can be easily and neatly corrected.
e. Output reports are usually very neat, decent and can be produced in various forms such as
adding graphs, diagrams, pictures etc.
f. Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced.

Characteristics of Computer
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows –

Figure 2: Characteristics of computer

1. Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
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• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
2. Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

3. Storage Capability
• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

4. Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

5. Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives
a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction. Reduction in
paper work and cost
• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction. Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

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6. Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.

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COMPUTER SCIENCE - YSU

LESSON 2
The Evolution of Computing Devices
Computing devices have evolved from simple manual tools to powerful, interconnected machines.
Manual computing devices before the 1800s relied on physical mechanisms for basic arithmetic and
record-keeping. The earliest known tool, the abacus (c. 2400 BCE), used sliding beads to perform
calculations, while the slide rule (1622) enabled multiplication and division through logarithmic
scales. Blaise Pascal’s Pascaline (1642) introduced geared wheels for automated addition and
subtraction, and Gottfried Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (1674) expanded this to multiplication. These
devices were purely mechanical, requiring human operation, and laid the groundwork for later
automated computation by demonstrating that machines could assist with mathematical tasks.
Though limited in function, they marked the first steps toward mechanized calculation.

The Mechanical and Electromechanical Computers (1800s–1940s) marked the transition from
manual calculation to automated computation. Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine
(1822) and Analytical Engine (1837)—though never fully built—introduced programmable concepts
using gears and punch cards, with Ada Lovelace pioneering algorithms for them. Later, Herman
Hollerith’s electromechanical tabulating machines (1890s) used punch cards for census data,
leading to IBM’s founding. In the 20th century, Konrad Zuse’s Z3 (1941) became the first
programmable electromechanical computer, while Colossus (1943) and ENIAC (1945) introduced
fully electronic digital computing. Key advancements included automation via punch cards,
electromechanical relays replacing gears, and the shift from analog to digital electronic processing—
setting the stage for modern computing.

The First-Generation Computers (1940s–1950s), such as ENIAC (1945) and UNIVAC I (1951), were
based on vacuum tubes and punch-card or magnetic tape storage, enabling faster calculations than
mechanical predecessors. Key advancements included electronic processing (thousands of times
quicker than electromechanical systems) and programmability for scientific and military tasks.
However, they had major limitations: they were enormous (room-sized), consumed massive power,
generated excessive heat, and were prone to frequent tube failures. Additionally, programming was
labor-intensive, requiring manual rewiring or punch cards. Despite these drawbacks, they laid the
foundation for modern computing by proving electronic digital computation was viable.

Transistor-Based Computers (1950s–1960s) replaced bulky vacuum tubes with transistors, leading
to smaller, faster, and more reliable machines like the IBM 1401 (1959) and DEC PDP-1 (1960).
Key advancements included reduced size, lower power consumption, increased speed, and
improved durability, making computers more practical for business and scientific use.
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However, limitations persisted, such as high production costs early on and the need for complex
hand-assembled wiring, which limited widespread adoption until integrated circuits emerged. This
era marked the shift from room-sized mainframes to smaller, more affordable systems, paving the
way for the minicomputer revolution.

The Integrated Circuits (ICs) and Microprocessors (1960s–1970s) revolutionized computing by

packing thousands of transistors onto a single silicon chip, enabling exponential gains in speed,
efficiency, and miniaturization. The invention of the first IC (1958) by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce,
followed by the Intel 4004 microprocessor (1971), allowed computers to shrink from room-sized
machines to desktop systems. This breakthrough drastically reduced costs, boosted performance,
and made computing power accessible to businesses and eventually consumers, sparking
the personal computer revolution (e.g., Altair 8800, Apple II). The era laid the foundation for modern
computing, embedding microprocessors into everything from calculators to spacecraft and setting
the stage for the digital age.

The Personal Computers & GUIs (1970s–1990s) era democratized computing by shifting from
institutional mainframes to user-friendly, affordable systems for homes and offices. Pioneered by
machines like the Apple II (1977) and IBM PC (1981), these PCs featured microprocessors, floppy
disks, and expandable architectures, making them versatile for both work and entertainment. The
introduction of the Graphical User Interface (GUI)—popularized by the Apple Macintosh (1984) and
later Microsoft Windows (1985)—replaced text-based commands with intuitive icons, windows, and
mouse-driven navigation, drastically improving accessibility. Key innovations included WYSIWYG
editing, plug-and-play peripherals, and multitasking capabilities, transforming computers into
essential tools for creativity, business, and communication while setting standards for modern
computing.

The Internet & Mobile Computing (1990s–2010s) era revolutionized global connectivity and
personal technology, driven by the World Wide Web (1991), which transformed the internet into a
user-friendly platform for information sharing, commerce, and communication. Key
advancements included the rise of search engines (Google, 1998), broadband internet, and e-
commerce (Amazon, eBay), alongside the proliferation of mobile devices like BlackBerry
(2002), iPhone (2007), and Android smartphones (2008), which combined computing, telephony,
and internet access into pocket-sized devices. The advent of social media (Facebook,
Twitter) and cloud computing (AWS, 2006) further decentralized data storage and enabled real-time
collaboration. This era marked the shift from stationary desktops to ubiquitous, always-connected
computing, reshaping work, culture, and daily life.
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The Modern & Future Computing (2010s–Present & Beyond) era is defined by AI-driven
automation, quantum computing, and ubiquitous connectivity, with breakthroughs like deep
learning (ChatGPT, AlphaGo), 5G networks, and edge computing enabling real-time data processing
across smart devices. Key features include neural networks that mimic human cognition, quantum
supremacy (Google’s 2019 milestone), and IoT ecosystems linking everything from wearables to
smart cities. Future possibilities span brain-computer interfaces (Neuralink), biocomputing (DNA
data storage), and self-improving AI, while quantum encryption and AI ethics grapple with societal
impacts. This era pushes toward autonomous systems, post-silicon computing, and a fusion of
biology with technology, redefining humanity’s relationship with machines.

Computing devices evolved from manual tools to AI-driven systems, becoming smaller, faster, and
more interconnected. Future advancements in quantum computing, AI, and biotechnology will push
boundaries even further.

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LESSON 3
Classification of Computers:
The computer has passed through many stages of evolution from the days of the mainframe
computers to the era of microcomputers. Computers have been classified based on different criteria.
In this lesson, we shall see the various classifications of computers.

Computers are generally classified in the following categories:

1. Classification based on generation (hardware and software).

2. Classification based on type (signal).
3. Classification based on size (capacity).
4. Classification based on purpose (function).
5. Classification based on make (manufacturer).

1. Classification based on generation (hardware and software)

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail
along with their time period and characteristics. Read Lesson 1 Classification based on type (signal)

(i) Analog Computers

Analog computers process analog data. Temperature, pressure, weight, depth, and voltage are a few
examples of this type of data. These have an infinite range of values and are continuous quantities.

The first computers were analog, and they laid the groundwork for today's digital computers.

Examples: Analog thermometers, Speedometers (odometer), Flight simulators.

Figure 4: An analog computer Figure 3: An odometer

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(ii) Digital Computers

In digital computers, letters, numbers, and other special symbols are represented by digits. On-off
(ON-OFF) inputs are used by digital computers, and ON-OFF signals are also generated by them.

An ON is often represented by a 1 and an OFF by a 0, respectively. A digital computer is capable of

processing both numerical and non-numerical data. In addition to doing fundamental arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, it can also perform logical
operations.

Examples: Personal computers, Laptops, Smartphones, Servers.

Figure 5: Digital computer

(iii) Hybrid Computers

Computers that combine digital and analog components are called hybrid computers. It combines
the best features of both types, having the speed of an analog computer with the memory and
precision of a digital computer. Hybrid computers are typically used in specific applications where
both forms of data need to be processed. As an example, a gas pump contains a processor that
converts measurements of fuel flow into information about quality and cost.

Examples: Hospital patient monitoring systems, Control systems in factories

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Figure 6: Hybrid computer

2. Classification based on size (capacity)

There are four different sorts of computers based on their size and how they are configured to
operate:
(i) Super Computers
The most efficient computers in terms of processing data and performance are super computers.
These computers are used for research and exploratory purposes. Super computers are exceedingly
large and highly expensive. It can only fit in large, air-conditioned spaces.

Super computers are used for a range of tasks, such as space exploration, seismic research, and the
testing of nuclear weapons.

Features of Super Computers:

• They make use of AI (Artificial intelligence)

• They are the fastest and strongest;
• They are very costly.
• They are enormous in size.
• They are employed by companies that manufacture goods.
• They process information at a rapid rate.

Examples: Fugaku (Japan), IBM Blue Gene, Cray XT52.

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Figure 7: Super Computer

(ii) Mainframe Computers

Despite being less efficient than super computers, mainframe computers are nevertheless extremely
expensive. Large corporations and governmental organizations frequently employ mainframe
computers to run everyday operations. They have the ability to store and analyze a lot of data. To
maintain information on their customers, students, and insurance policyholders, banks, colleges, and
insurance companies utilize them. They may also act as a server in a network environment. Hundreds
of users may be managed simultaneously by them.

Features of Mainframe Computers:

• They have enormous amounts of memory.

• They are capable of running several different operating systems.
• They have a significant number of CPUs with powerful processing speeds.
• Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology is employed.

Examples: IBM Z Series, Unisys ClearPath.

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Figure 8: Mainframe Computer

(iii) Mini computers

Mini computers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the term "Midrange
Computers." These mini computers frequently have several users, just as mainframe computers.
They are a bit slower than mainframe computers. For example, the manufacturing department may
employ mini computers to keep an eye on specific production processes.

Features of Mini computers:

• It is smaller than mainframes or super computers in terms of size.

• In comparison to a mainframe or super computer, it is less costly.
• It is able to perform many jobs at once.
• It may be utilized by several users simultaneously.
• It is utilized by small businesses.

Examples: DEC PDP-11, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), VAX Systems

(iv) Micro computers

A microcomputer, sometimes referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a type of computer that
runs on a smaller scale than traditional computers (Personal Computer). A component that is
commonly referred to as a motherboard houses the central processing unit (CPU), a microprocessor,
memory in the form of ROM (Read Only Memory), RAM (Random Access Memory), I/O ports, and a
bus system of connecting wires. They are the most affordable.

Features of Microcomputers:

• They are extensively employed for personal usage.

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• They are smaller and comparably less expensive.

• Multi-user functionality is not supported.
• It has a limited computational capacity.
• They are quite simple to use.

Examples: Desktop PCs, Laptops, Smartphones, Tablets, Raspberry Pi

3. Classification based on purpose (function)

Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either special purpose or
general purpose.

(i) Special Purpose Computers

A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class of problems. Such
computers may even be designed and built to handle only one job. In such machines, the steps or
operations that the computer follows may be built into the hardware. Most of the computers used
for military purposes fall into this class.

Other example of special purpose computers include:

• Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems.

• Computers designed for tracking airplane or missiles.
• Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical
manufacture, steel processing and power generation.
• Computers used as robots in factories like vehicles assembly plants and glass industries.

Attributes of Special Purpose Computers

• Special purpose computer is usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are specially
designed.
• They are very much less complex than the General-Purpose Computers. The simplicity of the
circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for limited facilities.
• They are very much cheaper than the General-Purpose type since they involve less
components and are less complex.

(ii) General-Purpose Computers

General-Purpose computers are computers designed to handle wide range of problems.
Theoretically, a general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of some easily alterable
instructions to handle any problems that can be solved by computation. In practice however, there
are limitations imposed by memory size, speed and the type of input/output devices. Examples of
areas where the general purpose are employed include the following:

• Payroll
• Banking
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• Billing
• Sales analysis
• Cost accounting
• Manufacturing scheduling
• Inventory control

Attributes of General-Purpose Computers

• General-Purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose computers.

• They can handle a wide spectrum of problems.
• They are less efficient than the special-purpose computers due to such problems as;
• Inadequate storage;
• Low operating speed;
• Coordination of the various tasks and subsection may take time.
• General Purpose Computers are more complex than the special purpose ones.

4. Classification based on make (manufacturer)

(i) Branded computers
Branded computers are those produced by well-established and recognized manufacturers. These
companies, often household names, design, assemble, and sell their computers under their own
brand. Examples include Dell, HP, Lenovo, and Apple. Branded computers are known for their
reliability, customer support, and adherence to quality standards. They usually come pre-installed
with the manufacturer's software and are often perceived as premium products due to their
consistent performance and sleek designs. While they may be more expensive than their
counterparts, the assurance of quality and warranty support is a significant advantage for many
users.

(ii) Clone Computers

In contrast to branded computers, clone computers are assembled using components from various
manufacturers, and they lack a single recognizable brand name. These computers are often custom-
built or assembled by local or independent technicians. The term "clone" signifies that these
machines replicate the basic functionality of branded computers without being associated with a
specific brand. Clones offer greater flexibility in terms of hardware customization, allowing users to
choose components based on their specific needs and budget. This flexibility, however, comes with
potential downsides, such as varying build qualities and limited warranty support compared to
branded alternatives.

Key Differences:

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One of the primary differences between branded and clone computers lies in the manufacturing
process. Branded computers undergo rigorous quality control measures and adhere to strict design
standards set by the manufacturer. On the other hand, clone computers may have variable build
qualities, as they are often assembled with components from different sources.

Another distinction is the level of customer support and warranty provided. Branded computers
typically come with comprehensive customer service and warranty packages, ensuring that users
receive prompt assistance in case of issues. Clone computers may lack standardized support, and
warranty terms can vary depending on the individual components and the assembler.

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LESSON 4
Basic Applications of Computer
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational institutions,
research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.

1. Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies or
shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc. They provide
communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home facility for corporate
employees. Computers help the student community to avail online educational support.

2. Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, Xrays, live
monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate
operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training
purposes. It also helps to monitor the foetus inside the mother’s womb.

3. Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in playing
games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the entertainment industry
in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from computers to full screen
televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.

4. Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online
marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners like
interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of
people through the use of computers.

5. Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring e-
books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education field.

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6. Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of citizens
and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defence organizations have greatly
benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.

7. Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct transactions,
such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced manual errors and
expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.

8. Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales,
expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.

9. Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and travelling
costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

10. Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of
dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.

11. Science and Engineering

Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and Engineering.
Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and Development (R&D).
Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use computers to plot and analyze
data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

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LESSON 5
Components of Computer System
The computer has three parts, namely:

1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output Unit

Figure 9: Functions of a digital computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions:

1. Takes data as input. (Input)

2. Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required. (Memory Unit)
3. Processes the data and converts it into useful information. (ALU)
4. Controls all the above four steps (Control Unit)
5. Generates the output (Output)

1. Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link
between user and computer. An Input device accept data and instructions from the user and convert
information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).It controls the operation of all parts of
computer.

CPU has following three components:

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➢ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division and logical section perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching and merging of data. The major operations performed by the ALU.
➢ Memory Unit (Register):
This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information
to the other units of the computer when needed.
➢ Control Unit:
The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed under the supervision of a
unit called 'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving data, when to stop it, where to
store data, etc. It takes care of step -by-step processing of all operations inside the computer.

3. Output unit
This is the unit that handles the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information.

Input Devices
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link
between user and computer. An Input device accept data and instructions from the user and convert
information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer.

Some Important input devices are listed below:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Light Pen
4. Trackball
5. Joystick
6. Scanners
7. Optical Mark Reader
8. Optical Character Reader
9. Barcode Reader
10. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
11. Voice Recognition Systems
12. Digital Cameras

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1. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most popular input device for direct entry of data and instructions into computer.
The computer keyboard is very much like the electronic typewriter keyboard. But it has additional
keys. now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and internet.

Figure 10: A Keyboard

Keyboard has following types of keys:

i. Typing Keys- digit keys (0-9) and letter keys (A-Z).

ii. Numeric Keypad- set of 17 keys
iii. Function Keys- The twelve function keys
iv. Control Keys-These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl),
Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc).
v. Special Purpose Keys- Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

2. Mouse
A mouse is a small hand-held 'point and click' device that is connected to the CPU through a cable.
Douglas Engelbart invented mouse in 1963 at Stanford Research Institute. Xerox Corporation's Palo
Alto Research Center enhanced its capabilities by adding analogue to digital conversion. It rolls on a
small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the
screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with
mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a
mouse.

There are three types of mouse:

i. Mechanical Mouse:
Mechanical Mouse has a trackball at its bottom. It can be rolled across a flat and smooth
surface to control the position of the cursor on the screen. By pointing and clicking on icons

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and menu options displayed on the screen, it is easy for the user to control the computer
with a mouse. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling
and move the screen pointer accordingly.
ii. Optomechanical Mouse:
The Optomechanical mouse is more or less the same as the mechanical mouse, but it uses
optical sensors to detect motion of the ball.
iii. Optical Mouse:
Optical mouse uses a laser to detect the mouse movement. The mouse requires to be moved
along a special mat with a grid so that the optical mechanism has a frame of reference. Optical
mouse is more expensive than the other two.

Figure 11: A Mouse

3. Light Pen
Light pen consists of a stylus connected by a cable to the computer terminal. When the stylus is
brought into contact with the screen, a dot appears there on the screen. By moving the stylus on the
screen, lines and curves can be drawn on the screen that can be stored and used as input. An Light
Pen utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen. A light pen is similar to a
mouse, except that with a light pen you can move the pointer and select objects on the display screen
by directly pointing to the objects with the pen.

Figure 12: A Light Pen

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4. Trackball
Trackball was originally built into the keyboard. Running a hand over the trackball made the cursor
on the screen to move. The cursor is used to make selection from a menu displayed on the computer
screen. In addition, you can place a trackball on any type of surface, including your lap. For both
these reasons, trackballs are popular pointing devices for portable computers.

Figure 13: Trackball

5. Joystick
Joystick is a small vertical stick attached to a trackball for easier mechanical movements. It is used
mainly in game programs.

Figure 14: Joystick

6. Scanners
Scanners are direct-entry input devices. As the data entry is automatic, the scanners ensure more
accurate data entry. These scanners include optical scanners and magnetic ink character readers.
The optical scanners use light for sensing input and they include OCR, OMR and Barcode reader.

Figure 15: Scanner

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7. Optical Mark Reader

Optical mark reader (OMR) reads the presence or absence of a mark on a paper optically. Light is
directed on to the paper and the reflected light is analysed for the detection of a mark. If a mark is
there on the surface of the paper, that area sends back lesser light are to the OMR. It is used to read
multiple choice answers in a test and the data are transferred to a computer for processing.

Figure 16: Optical Mark Reader

8. Optical Character Reader

Optical character reader (OCR) detects shape, and can identify characters. It can examine each
character as if it were made up of a collection of minute spots. Once the whole character has been
scanned, the pattern detected is matched against a set of patterns stored in the computer. The
pattern that matches or nearly matches is taken to be the character read. Patterns that cannot be
identified are rejected. It is used in mail sorting and credit card billing.

Figure 17: Optical Character Reader

9. Barcode Reader
Barcode is a set of small bars of varying thickness and spacing printed on the packages of products,
on the back coverpages of books, tags etc. The barcode reader uses an optical scanner to read
product code and converts it into electrical pulses. The device is connected to a computer and the
information read is passed to the computer in digital form for automatic bill generation and updating
of files. Thus, it is a direct data entry device and there is no need for an operator to key in sales
transaction data.

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Figure 18: Barcode Reader

10. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses highly stylised character shapes printed in a special
ink containing particles that can be magnetized. This ink induces a current in a reading circuit, which
is proportional to the area of ink being scanned. The patterns of the varying currents can be
compared with and selected as bit patterns of the selected number e.g., the number on a cheque).
The MICR reader can only identify characters. Banking industry uses this device for sorting of
cheques. The MICR codes read from the cheques are transmitted to an online computer for sorting
and processing automatically.

Figure 19: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

11. Voice Recognition Systems

A special microphone is used to capture voice as input. It converts the voice into electrical pulses and
then into digital signals for onward transmission to a computer for processing. A voice recognition
system is provided with digital patterns of a limited vocabulary of words and phrases. The system
operating in a training mode learns to recognize voice patterns by comparing the spoken input with
the stored digital patterns. After identifying the input, the voice system generates appropriate code
for the machine to accept input and operate. Voice recognition systems are very useful in offices for
word processing. A manager can directly dictate letters and notes to a word processor through a
speech recognition system. Similarly, the system can accept oral commands and execute them. These
systems are yet to become popular.

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Figure 20: Voice Recognition Systems

12. Digital Cameras

Digital cameras are used to capture images and they can record the images on reusable floppy disks.
Images are used with a digitiser for input to the computer. Once the image input is stored in
computer, the image can be used in any application.

Figure 21: Digital Camera

Output Devices
Output device displays result of the computer processing. Output devices return processed data that
is information, back to the user.

Some of the commonly used output devices are:

1. Monitor (Visual Display Unit)

2. Printers
3. Plotter
4. Speakers

1. Monitor (Visual Display Unit)

Visual display units (VDUs) are television-like screens that provide the user-interface in the form of
display of text, numbers and images. The VDUs may be monochrome or colour. The support of
monochrome or colour and clarity of display depend on the type of video monitor and the video
adapter installed in the microcomputer.

Two basic types of monitors are used with microcomputers:

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i. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT or Cathode Ray Tube Monitor is the typical monitor that you see on a desktop computer.
It looks a lot like a television screen, and works the same way. This type uses a large vacuum
tube, called cathode ray tube (CRT).

Figure 22: Cathode Ray Tube Monitor

ii. Flat panel Displays (LCD, LED):

This type of monitors is also known as flat panel monitor. Most of these employ liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) to render images. These days LCD monitor are very popular.

Figure 23: LCD monitor

2. Printer
Printers are purely output devices. They produce hard copy output. Computer printers vary widely
in their technologies and capabilities. They can be classified in a number of ways. First, they can be
classified into three broad groups: character printers, line printers and page printers. The character
printers print one character at a time. Dot matrix printer (DMP), daisy wheel printer, thermal printer
and inkjet printer are the various types of character printers. Drum printer and chain printer are line
printers. Laser printer and magnetic printer are page printers.

Some of the most commonly used printers are:

i. Laser Printer.
ii. Ink Jet Printer.
iii. Dot Matrix Printer.
iv. Line Printer.

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(i) Laser Printer

A laser printer produces high quality print that one normally finds in publishing. It is extremely fast
and quiet. Moreover, the operation of a laser printer is easy with automatic paper loading and no
smudging or messing up of ink ribbons. The fastest laser printer can print up to 200 pages per minute
in monochrome (black and white) and up to 100 pages per minute in colour.

(ii) Ink-Jet Printer

An ink-jet printer creates an image directly on paper by spraying ink through as many as 64 tiny
nozzles. Although the image it produces is not generally quite as sharp as the output of a laser printer,
the quality of ink-jet images is still high.

In general, ink-jet printer offers an excellent middle ground between dot matrix and laser printer.
Like laser printer, an ink-jet printer is quiet and convenient, but not particularly fast. Typically, an ink-
jet printer is more expensive than a dot-matrix printer, but costs only half as much as a laser printer.

(iii) Dot Matrix Printer

The dot matrix printer was very popular at one point of time. It is a very versatile and inexpensive
output device. In dot matrix printer the print head physically "hits" the paper through the ribbon and
produces text (or images) by combinations of dots; hence the name dot matrix printer. Its speed is
measured in characters per second (CPS). Although it is less expensive, it is louder, slower and
produces lower print quality.

(iv) Line Printer

A line printer is generally used with large computer systems to produce text-based data processing
reports. Line printers are high-speed printers with speeds ranging anywhere from 100 to about 3800
lines per minute. In the past, print quality on line printers was not high. Developments in technology
are improving the print quality on line printers.

(v) Plotter
A plotter is a special kind of output device that like a printer produces images on paper but does so
in a different way. Plotters are designed to produce large drawings or images, such as construction
plans for buildings or blueprints for mechanical objects. A plotter can be connected to the port
normally used by a printer.

An array of different colored pens in a clip rack and a robotic arm is part of plotter. The instructions
that a plotter receives from a computer consist of a color, and beginning and ending coordinates for
a line. With that information, the plotter picks up the appropriate pen through its arm, positions it

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at the beginning coordinates drops the pen down to the surface of the paper and draws to the ending
coordinates. Plotters draw curves by creating a sequence of very short straight lines.

Plotters usually come in two designs:

a) Flat Bed
Plotters of small size to be kept on table with restriction of paper size.

Figure 24: Flat Bed

Drum

These plotters are of big size using rolls of paper of unlimited length.

Figure 25: Drum

3. Speaker
A Speakers are another type of output device which allow you to listen to voice like music and
conversation with people.

Figure 26: Speakers

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LESSON 6
Computer Memory
A computer memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required
for processing are stored. memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.

Computer storage can be divided into primary memory, secondary memory and cache memory.
Primary memory or main memory in the computer provides fast access memory. The processor can
access it directly for data and instructions. Frequently used files and programs are stored in the
primary memory. Since primary storage is expensive, only a limited amount can be stored therein.
Cache memory is another memory device. CPU can access it much faster than main memory. But it
is very expensive. The secondary memory is used for bulk storage of data and instructions. Large files
and databases are stored on secondary storage devices. These devices include hard disk, optical
disks, magnetic tapes and floppy disks. Data and instructions from secondary storage devices are
transferred to main memory and cache memory in small measures for the CPU to access them for
processing.

Computer Memory are three types:

1. Primary Memory or Main Memory

The main memory is used to store data and instructions currently required for processing. These
memories are manufactured by using integrated electronic circuits or semiconductor device. It has
limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. Both RAM and ROM are random access
memories and both can be used for reading purposes. The distinguishing feature is RAM's ability to
alter data stored in it, which is not possible with ROM. Typically ROM is used to store system
instructions which are relatively permanent in nature. RAM is volatile; that is, it loses its contents if
the device is electrically disconnected.

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Primary Memory are divided into two subcategories:

(i) Random Access Memory (RAM)

The word ‘random’ means that the computer can access any memory cell without accessing all cells
sequentially. That is, a memory is said to be random access memory if any part of it can be accessed
directly (randomly) for reading or writing data in the same time irrespective of its location. In other
words, access to this memory is independent of physical storage location of information on the
medium. RAM is volatile as any interruption in power supply results in loss of data in RAM. The
contents of the memory remain there as long as electrical current is available to sustain the
memory’s pattern of positive and negative charges which represent the two bits 1 and 0. lf power
fails, all the contents in the memory will be lost.

Types of RAM:
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• Static RAM

(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM)

This memory uses Metal Oxide Semiconductor Technology. RAM is read-write memory whereas
ROM is Read-Only-Memory. This memory is used to store frequently used programs in the system.

Types of ROM:

• Programmable read-only memory (PROM)

• Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)
• Electrically erasable programmable read-only-memory (EEPROM)

2. Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.

In this type of memory, the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower
than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data is stored here on permanent basis and
transferred to the primary storage as and when required.

Main secondary memories are:

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a) Floppy Disk: These are small removable disks that are plastic coated with magnetic recording
material. Floppy disks are typically 3.5″ in size (diameter) and can hold 1.44 MB of data. This
portable storage device which now obsolete is a rewritable media and can be reused a
number of times. Floppy disks are commonly used to move files between different
computers. The main disadvantage of floppy disks is that they can be damaged easily and,
therefore, are not very reliable.

b) Hard Disk: Another form of auxiliary storage is a hard disk. A hard disk consists of one or more
rigid metal plates coated with a metal oxide material that allows data to be magnetically
recorded on the surface of the platters. The hard disk platters spin at 5 a high rate of speed,
typically 5400 to 7200 revolutions per minute (RPM). Storage capacities of hard disks for
personal computers range from 100 GB to 2 TB.

c) Optical Disks: Optical Mass Storage Devices Store bit values as variations in light reflection.
They have higher area density & longer data life than magnetic storage. They are also
Standardized and relatively inexpensive. Their Uses: read-only storage with low performance
requirements, applications with high-capacity requirements & where portability in a
standardized format is needed.

Types of Optical Disk:

• CD-ROM: 700MB read-only pressed discs
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• CD-R: Write-once recordable discs

• CD-RW: Rewritable discs (1000+ cycles)
• DVD: 4.7-17GB capacity (various formats)
Blu-ray: 25-128GB for HD content
• CD-ROM (read only)
• CD-R: (record) to a CD
• CD-RW: can write and erase CD to reuse it (re-writable)
• DVD (Digital Video Disk)

3. Cache Memory
Input-Output operations are very slow. CPU speeds are quite high compared to the access time of
main memory. Thus the processor performance is limited by the slow speed of the main memory. To
speed up fetching of instructions to CPU, a buffer or cache (pronounced as cash) is used. Normal
RAM is expensive and is not fast enough to match the speed of CPU. To reduce the processing time,
certain computers use costlier and higher speed memory devices to form a buffer or cache. This
technique uses a small memory with extremely fast access speed close to the processing speed of
the CPU. This memory is called cache and it stores data and instructions currently required for
processing. Cache memory thus makes main memory appear much faster and larger than it really is.
It improves the memory transfer rates and thus raises the effective processor speed.

The CPU searches cache before it searches main memory for data and instructions. Cache is
physically located close to the CPU and hence access to cache is faster than to any other memory.

Memory Units
1. Bit (Binary Digit): Can only have a value of either 0 or 1.
2. Byte: 8 bits (also known as a Character).
3. Kilobyte: 1024 bytes (or 2^10 bytes).
4. Megabyte: 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^20 bytes). Roughly one million bytes.
5. Gigabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^30 bytes). Roughly one billion bytes.
6. Terabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^40 bytes). Roughly one trillion bytes.

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LESSON 7
Parts of Computer System
The computer system is a group of various components that work together to achieve a specific goal
of data processing. The computer is divided into two main parts namely; hardware and software.

1. Hardware
The term hardware is used to refer to all the physical parts inside or outside the computer. The
hardware that are used to supply input to computer are called as input devices. The hardware that
are used to process the data are called as processing devices and the devices that are used to present
output of computer are called as output devices and the hardware used for storing data or
information are called storage devices.

Components of System Unit

The system unit contains the following:
o Front side
o Back side
▪ Ports
▪ Expansion Slots
o Inside
▪ Motherboard (System Board)
▪ CPU (Central Processing Unit)
▪ Memory, such as RAM, ROM, Cache, and Flash
o Outside
▪ Input /output devices
▪ Communication device

The system unit is also known as case. It houses all the computer components and their connection
switches in front, back and inside.

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• Front Side

i) Power switch: The power on/off switch is used to turn on or off the power to the PC.

ii) Reset button: This button helps you restart your computer without disconnecting the
power supply.

iii) Lights: The front panel of the system unit may display a variety of colored indicator
lights. These lights are used to indicate whether the hard disk of CD/DVD ROM is being
read or written.

iv) CD/DVD Combo Drive: A simple combo drive allows you to save data on CD and look at
data in a DVD but not let you save any data on DVD. For saving data on DVD you need
an enhanced version of combo drive which includes functionality to save data on DVD.
• Backside

i) Ports: They are sockets that are on the outside of the system unit, meaning you can
easily plug a cable into a port without opening the system unit.
a) Serial ports: transmit one bit of data at a time.
b) Parallel ports: transmit 8 bits of data at a time.

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c) Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports: are much faster than serial or parallel ports and
allow multiple devices to be connected to the same port.
d) VGA ports:
e) HDMI ports:
f) SCSI ports: Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) used primarily as a connection
interface for tape drives and hard disk drives.
g) Power sockets: for connecting power to power supply from external source.

ii) Expansion Slots: are sockets on the motherboard that you can plug expansion cards
into. To plug a card into a slot, you must open the system unit. A card contains a socket
on its end that sticks out from the system unit so a cable can be plugged into it.
Common types of cards are graphics, sound, and network cards.
• Inside

i) The Motherboard is the main circuit board for the computer, containing both soldered,
nonremovable components along with sockets or slots for components that can be
removed. The motherboard holds the CPU, RAM and ROM chips, etc.

Figure 27: Motherboard

ii) The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer. It executes
instructions (from software) and tells other components what to do.

Figure 28: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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iii) The Power Supply -The power supply as its name might suggest is the device that
supplies power to all the components in the computer. Its case holds a transformer,
voltage control, and (usually) a cooling fan. uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an
electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power
source or mains power fails.

iv) Bus Lines are "electrical data roadways" (i.e., wires) through which bits of information
are transmitted between the CPU and other components. The bus size denotes how
many bits can be transmitted at once. In general, this should be the same as the CPU
word size.

v) Random Access Memory (RAM), is used to hold instructions and data while they are
being used. RAM is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the power goes off.

vi) Read Only Memory (ROM) chips are non-volatile memory that generally contains
instructions for "booting" the computer (i.e., loading the operating system when the
computer starts up).

vii) CMOS chips are powered by a battery and contain so-called "flexible information" such
as the type of hard drive your computer is using and the current date and time.

viii) Flash chips do not require electricity or a battery yet are non-volatile.

ix) Cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores instructions and
data the CPU is likely to use frequently.

x) Secondary Storage Devices that "permanently" hold data and information (i.e.,
programs).
• Outside
i. Input / Output Devices:
Input devices translate data into a form the computer can understand.

▪ The keyboard is the most common input device, but this type of data entry is
very slow and error-prone. Direct input devices are much faster and less error-
prone. Pointing devices such as the mouse, trackball, and touchpad allow you
to manipulate a cursor on the screen. Scanning devices read data directly.

Output devices translate information into a form humans can understand.

▪ The Monitor (or Display Screen) is the most common type of output device. It
produces softcopy (i.e., temporary) output on a screen.

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▪ The Printer is the most second most common type of output device. It
produces hardcopy (i.e., "permanent") output on paper.
ii. Communications Devices:
These allow your computer to send/receive data to/from other computers.
▪ A modem sends information over a phone line. Modems are slow and
susceptible to problems such as phone line static.
▪ A network card sends information over a network cable. These can be used to
hook up a computer to a local area network (LAN) or to an Internet Service
Provider via a cable modem or DSL (for Internet access).

2. Software
The hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of instructions that drives computer
to do stipulated tasks is called a program or procedure. Many programs functioning together to do a
task make a software. Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated
into machine language, and executed by computer.

Software can be categorized into two types:

i. System Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a platform to run
an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system software include:

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➢ Operating System

System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their interoperability
to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first software to be loaded
into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is called booting. OS manages a
computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files from storage devices,
scheduling tasks based on priority, etc. Examples of operating systems includes: Windows OS, Mac
OS, Android, iOS, Linux, Unix.

➢ Language Processor

System software used to convert all user instructions into machine understandable language.
Computer language are categorized into three, namely:

a) Machine-level language: This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s that the machines
can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
b) Assembly-level language: This language introduces a layer of abstraction by defining
mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a long string of 0s
and 1s. The complete instruction will also tell the memory address. Assembly level language
is machine dependent.
c) High level language: This language uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to create,
read and understand.

Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source code. Set
of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine code. System software
that converts source code to object code is called language processor. There are three types of
language interpreters, namely:

a) Assembler: Converts assembly level program into machine level program.

b) Interpreter: Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
c) Compiler: Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go rather than
line by line.

➢ Device Drivers

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is called
device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be attached

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externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a new device, you
need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

➢ Utility Software

Software that assists operating systems in doing their work is called utility software. Examples of
utility software include:

a) Antivirus: It is used to protect a computer from the virus. It detects a virus and notify the user
and take action to secure the computer. The virus is kept in different location called vault
where it has different file system due to which virus effect it. User can itself instruct antivirus
to delete malicious program, put it in vault or even ignore it. These days most come in GUI
form.
b) File Management Tool: The software is used to manage files stored in a file system. It can be
used to create, group file. File management tool is a data structure used to store file in an OS
while later is used to perform task on file stored in the file System. Like Windows File Explorer
is a file management tool.
c) Compression Tool: These tools are used to reduce the size of a file based on the selected
algorithm. Most operating systems include tools for compressing and uncompressing files.
Linux has tools for both .tar.gz and .zip. Other compressed files, like .7z and .rar, require a
third-party compression utility to be installed.
d) Disk Management Tool: It enables us to view or managed the disk drives installed in their
computer and the partition associated with those drives. Disk Management is used to
managed the drives installed in a computer- like hard disk drives, and flash drives. It can be
used to partition drives, assign drive letters and much more.
e) Disk Cleanup Tool: It allows user to remove files that are no longer needed or that can be
safely deleted. Removing unnecessary files, including temporary files, can help to improve
the functioning and increase the free space of the computer. Running Disk Cleanup at least
once a month is an excellent maintenance task. Disk Cleanup tool can delete temporary
internet files, old check disk files, compress old files and offline webpages. Disk cleanup also
allows you to empty the Recycle Bin, delete temporary files, and delete Thumbnails.
f) Disk Defragmenter: It is a utility in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access speed by
rearranging file stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations, a technique is called
Defragmentation. Defragmenting a disk minimizes head travel, which reduces the time it
takes to read files from and write files to the disk. The defragmenter will search your hard
drive partition and move data from one location to other location, so that the files stored
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there are one contiguous piece, instead of being throughout multiple locations on the hard
drives partition.
g) Backup: Backup utility enables backing up of files, folders, databases or complete disks.
Backups are taken so that data may be restored in case of data loss. Backup is a service
provided by all operating systems. In stand-alone systems backup may be taken in the same
or different drive. In case of networked systems backup may be done on backup servers.
ii. Application Software
An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks. Application
software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem. Below are
categories of application software.

a) Commercial software: These programs available as an online download. Once the trial period
is over, the user can pay for the program directly on the Web site and download an official
copy.
b) Public domain software: Public domain software is not copyrighted. It is released without
any conditions upon its use, and may be used without restriction. This type of software
generally has the lowest level of support available.
c) Freeware: Freeware has no cost and can be downloaded from the Internet without any
charges.
d) Shareware: This is a software that can be used on a trial basis. Once the time limit of
shareware expires, the user is asked to pay for continuation of the services.

Examples of Application software:

1. Word Processing Software: Word Processing software is used to manipulate, format the text,
to create memos, letters, faxes and documents. For example, Microsoft Word, Lotus Word
Pro, Word pad and Corel WordPerfect.
2. Spreadsheet Software: Spreadsheet software is used to perform manipulate and
calculations. In spreadsheet software data is stored in intersection row and column. The
intersection of row and column is known as a cell. For example, Microsoft Excel, lotus 1-2-3
for windows and number for MAC OS.
3. Presentation Software: Presentation program is a program to show the information in the
form of slides. The software has three components:
a. Text editor for inputting and formatting text.
b. Inserting graphics, text, video and other multimedia files.
c. Slideshow to display the information.
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We can add text, graphics video and images to slides to make them more informative.
Presentation software helps the presenter to present their ideas with ease and visual
information easy to understand. Examples of presentation software are Microsoft’s
PowerPoint and Apple’s Keynote.
4. Database Software: Database is a collection of data related to any applications. When we
operate the application data is accessed from the database, and after manipulation, it gets
back stored in the database. For example, Database Management System (DBMS) software
tool used for storing, modifying extracting and searching for information within a database.
MySQL, MS Access, Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle are the example of database application
Software.
5. Business software: These programs are built to facilitate certain business functions,
improving the accuracy, efficiency, and effectiveness of operations. Business application
software programs achieve measurable objectives such as saving work time and enhancing
productivity. Below are some popular examples of business applications that are commonly
used by organization.
6. Education and Reference Software: These types of software are specifically designed to
facilitate learning on a particular subject. There are various kinds of tutorial software that fall
under this category. They are also termed as academic software. Some examples are: Delta
Drawing, Jumpstart titles, Kid Pix, Mind Play, Tux Paint.
7. Games/Entertainment: This area deal with the general public, media and
telecommunication. With the growth entertainment mode, many applications are available
for mobile phone as well as the system. Like Music and video entertainment app, navigation
app, social networking application, news and weather application, educational apps and e-
book reader’s app for preparation of any type of exams.
8. Web Browsers: These applications are used to browse the internet. They help the user in
locating and retrieving data across the web. Some examples of web browsers are: Google
Chrome, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Safari, UC Browser.
9. Authoring/Multimedia Software: Multimedia is a combination of text, graphics, audio and
Multimedia software used in the editing of video, audio and text. Multimedia software used
in the growth of business, educations, information, remote system and entertainment.
10. Graphics Software: As the name suggests, Graphics Software has been devised to work with
graphics as it helps the user to edit or make changes in visual data or images. It comprises of
picture editors and illustration software. Some examples are: Adobe Photoshop, Autodesk
Maya, Blender, CorelDRAW, GIMP, Modo, Paint Shop Pro.

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11. Web-based applications: While most application software can be installed directly to a
machine, many allow users to access tools through web browsers and some only exist in web
format. Not only do these services free up space on a user's hard drive or network, being
web-based means they can be accessed from anywhere in the world at any time, with data
being stored in the cloud. This also means the application is kept up-to-date automatically,
without the risk of a user running an insecure version.

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LESSON 8
Data Communication, Network and Internet

1. Data communication
Data communications simply refers to a set of computer system that uses telecommunications for
the exchange of data or information.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must
be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).

It is clear from the above that data communication involves an interconnectivity of various computer
hardware in a special way which can be describes as (topology), coupled with some laid down set of
rules and regulation which guides the initiation of data transmission (protocols). The data
transmission process is a function of the medium (communication channels), speed, direction and
mode which is called transmission characteristics.

The data communication architecture is made up of both hardware and software components. The
hardware components include the following: keyboard, modem, Network Interface Card (NIC),
routers, bridges, and intelligent PC while the software component comprises of the network
protocols and operating systems which guides the conversion of digital codes to electronic signals
and vice versa.

(i) Components of Data Communication

A data communications system has five components.

Figure 29: Components of data communication system

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

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3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless medium like Bluetooth, WiFi, Microwave
and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating.

(ii) Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as: Text, Numbers, Images, Audio, and Video .

2. Computer Network
Computer network is a system composed of multiple connected computing devices that
communicate over a wired or wireless medium to share data and other resources. In other words, a
network is two or more computing devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

Network data protocols are used to communicate on the network between devices on a network.

The size and scalability of any computer network are determined both by the physical medium of
communication and by the software controlling the communication (i.e., the protocols).

(i) Type of Network Connection

a) Point-to-Point: This connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

Figure 30: Point-to-point

b) Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.

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Figure 31: Multipoint

(ii) Types of networks

There are 4 main types of networks:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line and typically share the resources of a single processor or
server within a small geographic area. A LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices
in a single office, building, or university campus.
2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part
of city.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN): is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical
area (diameter of about 200 km).
4. Global Area Network (GAN): is a network spanning between geographically distinct cities. It
provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.

(iii) Interconnecting devices

LANs, MANs, and WANs each speak their own language; the process of connecting multiple dissimilar
systems requires very flexible advanced interconnecting devices, these devices include:

a. Repeater: Repeaters are simple interconnecting devices that connect two identical cabling
segments of a LAN. A repeater accepts weak signals and electrically regenerates them and
then sends the messages back on their way.
b. Bridges: Bridges are more intelligent than repeaters, they go beyond simply regenerating
weak signals. Bridges process network signals and ensure smooth passage from LAN to LAN
and from LAN to WAN.
c. Routers: Routers contain advanced algorithms that allow them to make intelligent decisions
about where a message should go and what path to use for greater efficiency.

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d. Gateways: Gateways approach interconnectivity from a completely different angle. These

devices use more of software translation than hardware routing. They are required when
network messages travel between two entirely different systems.

(iv) Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must
agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.

The sole purpose of protocol is to provide guidance to the communication channels and to promote
harmonious connectivity between the many network components. Protocols work on the electronic
level. They are initiated and controlled by advanced subroutines built into each NIC.

(v) Network Topologies

a. Bus Topology

A bus topology is multipoint connection. One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices
in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either
splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.

As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it
becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason, there is a limit on
the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages:

➢ Ease of installation.
➢ Redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility.

Disadvantages:

➢ Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

➢ A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same
side of the problem.

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Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks.

Figure 32: Bus Topology

b. Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

Figure 33: Ring Topology

Advantages:

➢ Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

➢ Fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device
does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantages:

➢ Unidirectional traffic.

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➢ In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.
This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
c. Mesh

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To
find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to every other node.

Advantages:

➢ First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
➢ Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
➢ Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travel along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
➢ Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages:

➢ The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of
I/O ports required.
➢ First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
➢ Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings,
or floors) can accommodate.
➢ Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices in which
each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

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Figure 34: Mesh Topology

d. Star Topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.

Advantages:

➢ Less expensive than a mesh topology.

➢ Easy to install and reconfigure.
➢ Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
➢ Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor
also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation.

Disadvantages:

➢ The dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down,
the whole system is dead.
➢ Often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
➢ The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.

Figure 35: Star Topology

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e. Hybrid Topology

A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology.

Figure 36: Hybrid topology

3. The Concept of the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that
transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).

It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and
government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic
mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide
Web (WWW).

It is a global network connecting millions of computers. More than 1000 countries are linked into
exchanges of data, news and opinions. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the
Internet is decentralized by design. Each Internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its
operators can choose which Internet services to use and local services to make available to the global
Internet community.

(i) History of Internet

The United States started the Advanced Research Projects Agency, known as ARPA in February 1958
to regain a technological lead and as a way for government researchers to share information.

In 1969, ARPA, a part of the Department of Defence (DOD), awarded a contract to construct a
computer network. The network was used to link researchers at universities with defense
contractors, researchers, scientists and military contractors so that they can share information and
resources. This network was called the ARPANET. It was a communications network which allowed
computers at distant locations to "talk" with each other in order to exchange military and national
security data.

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In 1973, ARPA was changed to the Defense Advanced Research Agency (DARPA) and the resulting
network to DARPANET. An important task for this newly named agency was to begin a project called
“the interneting project”, which would start the process of linking different networks together.

Between 1969 and 1983, minicomputers, mainframes and super computers made up the networks.
This network had file transfer capabilities, electronic mail and mailing list services.

ARPANET ultimately evolved into what we now know as the Internet today.

(ii) Benefits of the Internet

The benefits of Internet can be discussed under the following headings; economics, social, political,
education, and cultural:

The economic benefits of the Internet

• The economies of the world are increasingly powered by the creation, use and transmission
of information and entertainment content in digital format.
• The deployment of Internet infrastructure impacts the economy both directly and indirectly.
• The effects of broadband technology on the economy are much more far-reaching than the
direct benefit created by capital investment in deployment and the manufacturing of the
components such a network requires.
• As Internet penetration increases, there will be resulting demand for computer and home
network equipment, software applications, wireless devices and other equipment.
• The economic impacts of Internet also include the increased productivity and innovation that
it fosters.
• The full economic impact of widespread Internet deployment and adoption cannot be
captured in even the most sophisticated econometric modelling.
• The Internet provides increases in employment and economic activity.
• The wide-ranging deployment of Internet infrastructure will have the direct effect of
employing thousands of people: to manufacture, sell, purchase, install, manage, and maintain
the equipment and facilities, as well as the resulting services.
• The Internet makes the world smaller. The ability to communicate and exchange information
instantaneously and across vast distances has enabled more individuals and businesses to
participate in the economy, regardless of their location.
• Large companies can connect with employees, suppliers, and partners around the globe, and
small businesses can find their customers anywhere in the world.

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• Businesses can hire knowledge workers almost regardless of where they are, greatly
expanding employment opportunities for people in the United States, and giving developing
nations the ability to become economic powerhouses by providing information technology
services to the rest of the world.
• The Internet, along with other computer technologies, is literally enabling some developing
countries to "leapfrog" the industrial revolution and jump straight to the Internet Age.

The social benefits of the Internet

• The Internet brings people closer together. Before the Internet, it was possible to keep in
touch with relatives and friends across the country or around the world--but it was also
expensive.
• Today, communicating with a friend in Japan is as easy and cheap as communicating with a
friend across town, and families regularly use the Internet to keep in touch with far-flung
relatives.
• Millions of people with shared interests--no matter how obscure--exchange information and
build communities through Web sites, email and instant-messaging software.
• Using innovative accessibility aids, people with disabilities can use the Internet to help
overcome barriers that prevent them from leading more productive and fulfilling lives.
• Telemedicine and e-Health are broadly defined as the application of electronic
communication technologies to the provision of healthcare, health education and health
services.
• Telemedicine applications can use Internet to transmit detailed medical images, as well as for
videoconferencing to connect healthcare clinics in remote rural locations with experts and
specialists located primarily in urban centers. In this way, rural clinics and hospitals can have
access to the same medical expertise that is available in the most sophisticated urban
hospitals.
• Telemedicine applications can allow health care professionals to monitor a patient’s health
remotely and, using videoconferencing technologies can have access to critically needed
specialists.

The political benefits of the Internet

• Many political organizations and individuals have established Web pages.

• At their simplest, Web pages provide information about the group or individual's policies,
contact details and some brief biographical information, and perhaps link to related pages.

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• More sophisticated Web pages provide interactive facilities so that the user of the page can
provide feedback about the content of the page, express opinions about the policies or issues,
offer assistance through donations or volunteering, download software, and use specifically
designed programs to find detailed information.
• The following list summarizes some of the facilities that are found on political Web sites:
o Policies, platforms, rules and other organisational details.
o Biographical details about key people, and links to their home pages.
o Statements about achievements.
o News items and press releases.
o Links to stories at news Web sites that support their point of view.
o Listings of mistakes made by opponents, or details about social ills they blame on
opponents.
o Registration forms for potential volunteers or interns.
o Guest books, so that visitors can leave their comments, and/or user surveys that can
be used to improve the site.
o Links to sites belonging to organizations they support.
o Subscription forms for e-mail distribution lists.
o Links to how opponents have voted on issues.
o Links to pages that denigrate opponents.
o Spreadsheets that can be used to calculate the effect of an opponent's policies.
o Interactive 'chat rooms' where citizens can share and debate ideas and where
politicians can participate in question-and-answer sessions.
o Links to audio or video resources.
o Calendars of events and chronologies that may be searchable.
o Links to Federal/State/Local governments
o Free software that can enable the user's browser to access extra resources (i.e., Real
Video technology).
o Screen savers consisting of images of key individuals, slogans, etc.
o Games which reinforce their political messages.
o Sales of fundraising merchandise - Forms to solicit donations.
• Internet voting is a type of voting, embracing electronic means of casting a vote. It can also
involve transmission of ballots and votes via the Internet.

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• Internet voting technology can provide improved accessibility for disabled voters. However,
there has been contention, especially in the United States, that Internet voting especially
could facilitate electoral fraud.
• Internet voting systems have gained popularity and have been used for government elections
and referendums in the United Kingdom, Estonia and Switzerland as well as municipal
elections in Canada and party primary elections in the United States and France.

The educational benefits of the Internet

• The internet provides a powerful resource for learning, as well as an efficient means of
communication. Its use in education can provide a number of specific learning benefits,
including the development of:
o independent learning and research skills, such as improved access to subject learning
across a wide range of learning areas, as well as in integrated or cross-curricular
studies;
o Communication and collaboration, such as the ability to use learning technologies to
access resources, create resources and communicate with others.
• Access to resources: The internet is a huge repository of learning material. As a result, it
significantly expands the resources available to students beyond the standard print materials
found in school libraries. It gives students access to the latest reports on government and
nongovernment websites, including research results, scientific and artistic resources in
museums and art galleries, and other organisations with information applicable to student
learning. The internet can be used for undertaking reasonably sophisticated research
projects.
• The internet is also a time-efficient tool for teachers that expands the possibilities for
curriculum development.
• Communication and collaboration: The internet is a powerful tool for developing students’
communication and collaboration skills.
• Above all, the internet is an effective means of building language skills. Through email, chat
rooms and discussion groups, students learn the basic principles of communication in the
written form. This gives teachers the opportunity to incorporate internet-based activities into
mainstream literacy programs and bring diversity to their repertoires of teaching strategies.
• The Internet's great strength is that it can make instruction time-independent and location
independent; it is able to reach students whenever and wherever they find it convenient to
learn (in their homes, at work, etc.).

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The cultural benefits of the Internet

Culture is defined as shared behaviors, ideas, and artifacts that create a way of life passed from one
generation to another. The cultural benefits of the Internet are as stated below:

• Cultural Advancement: With the easy accessibility of information, cultures have been able to
advance in many ways. Education is a way in which advancement of cultures has occurred.
People can now learn about anything using the internet as a means of information.
• Cultures have also advanced economically because the internet allows for marketing and
sales transactions. Marketers now have a whole new way of advertising and selling products
or services. They can now post something on the internet and anyone, anywhere at any point
in time can see that add. This leads to an increase in business. Businesses are also growing
because the internet allows for businesses to be internet based.
• Exploration of Cultures: Cultures can more easily explore other cultures now that the internet
is available. To learn about a culture one can just use a search engine and quickly access
information about the desired culture. Prior to the internet, a person would have had to
either travel to where the culture was at or find a book which entailed information about that
culture. Both of these ways are time consuming and have the potential to be very expensive.
• Another benefit to using the internet for cultural information is that one can learn about the
beliefs of that culture before experiencing it if he/she is interested in going there. An example
is learning what that culture finds offensive so that he/she does not make the mistake of
acting or speaking in a way that offends the people of that culture. This helps with business
transactions and any kind of intercultural travel.
• Homogenization of Cultures: With the newfound exploration of cultures, cultural uniqueness
has decreased because people see there are other possible ways of living life. A person of one
culture may like the way another culture does something and then start to do that something
themselves. This can spread throughout the culture and soon the two cultures will contain
fewer differences. An easy example of this is cultural food. In the United States, we have
Chinese, Mexican, Japanese, Italian, and Thai restaurants. This is because we have learned
about the different foods from these cultures, liked it and started eating it ourselves. The
internet makes this process very easy by providing recipes from these cultures online.
• Increased Cultural Communication: The internet allows information to freely flow from one
network to another. Cultural communication is easier now because information from one
culture can be posted on the internet and looked at by another culture. This can be through
journals, websites and anything else included with the internet. Cultural trends include using

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Facebook, instant messaging, Myspace, blogs, and other devices like these to communicate.
Cultures can directly communicate with other cultures through these services.

(iii) Internet Services

The various Internet services include:

• E-commerce: Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce,

consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the
Internet and other computer networks.
• WWW (World Wide Web): The Internet consists of many services. What most people hear
about however is the World Wide Web (WWW). This is a graphical environment that allows
text and pictures to be displayed on your screen, via software called Web browsers (such as
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla etc.). In addition, sound and movies are
also supported on the WWW.
• E-mail (Electronic Mail): Email is available over the Internet enabling you to send and receive
messages on a global basis. Even better, you can communicate globally for the cost of a local
phone call. The reason for this is that you connect to the Internet via your ISP (Internet Service
Provider) by dialing a local number. Once connected to the Internet, you can send and receive
emails with someone in the same room or on the other side of the world - It makes no
difference to your phone bill. In the same way you can browse Web pages globally, also at
local call rates.
• Newsgroups: Newsgroups are included in the Internet. They can be accessed via your Web
browser and enable you to take part in discussions of interest to you with like-minded people
from around the world. Typically, a newsgroup is focused on a particular topic. Some
newsgroups allow the posting of messages on a wide variety of themes, regarding anything a
member chooses to discuss as on-topic, while others keep more strictly to their particular
subject, frowning on off topic postings.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is simply a way of transferring files to and from the Internet.
Often this is done using your browser, or you may obtain specialist FTP software programs.
FTP sites are typically used for uploading and downloading files to a central server computer,
for the sake of file distribution.
• Audio Video Communication: Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a general term for a
family of transmission technologies for delivery of voice communications over the Internet or
other packet-switched networks.

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• Digital Library: A digital library is a library in which collections are stored in digital formats (as
opposed to print, microform, or other media) and accessible by computers. The digital
content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. A digital library
is a type of information retrieval system.
• Telnet: Telnet (Telecommunication network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or
local area network (LAN) connections.

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LESSON 9
Computing Specializations
The possibilities for specialization within the computing field are wide, and new specializations
continue to evolve as advances are made in computer hardware and software and as more
applications for computer technology are discovered. Listed below are some popular areas of
computing. These specializations may be offered as degree programs at some universities; more
often, they will be available as areas of concentration within graduate computer science
departments.

1) Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI is a complex, highly interdisciplinary branch of computer science that attempts to incorporate the
principles of human intelligence and reasoning into computing systems. AI research is concerned
with modeling all facets of human intelligence, but most often the research involves creating
computer systems that have the ability to plan (automated deduction), adapt to different situations
(machine learning), acquire human-like senses (machine vision and natural language processing), and
effect changes to the environment (robotics).

2) Cognitive Science
A branch of computer science that is concerned with understanding, simulating, and enhancing both
natural and artificial intelligence. Highly interdisciplinary in nature, cognitive science draws from
research in artificial intelligence, psychology, anthropology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience,
and engineering.

3) Computer Engineering
A broad discipline that incorporates the fields of computer science and electrical engineering.
Computer engineering emphasizes the theory, design, and development of computers and
computer-related technology including both hardware and software.

4) Computer Information Systems (CIS)

This specialization, which is closely related to management information systems and information
science, integrates the computer applications of data processing with problem solving to improve
the efficiency of organizations.

5) Computer Graphics
This specialization, which is related to graphic design and the visual arts, combines video and
computer technologies to produce 2, 3, and 4-dimensional graphic images (such as those seen in
video games and computer- animated films) using computers.
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6) Computer Programming
One of the most open-ended and commonly pursued specializations, computer programming
involves the study of how to instruct computers to perform certain tasks and how to write detailed
instructions that list the steps a computer must follow in order to solve a problem. Such study also
involves testing computer programs for problems ("debugging" them).

7) Computer Networks
The study of the principles of communication between computers. Computer networking
emphasizes the design of local area networks (LANs), which connect computers within a small
geographical area, and wide area networks (WANs), which use telephone lines or radio waves to
connect computers thousands of miles apart.

8) Data Processing
A broad, often confusing term used to describe a wide range of fields involving the study of how data
is stored in computers (for example, stacks, queues, and files) and how data can be processed to
solve accounting and management problems.

9) Database Systems
Involves the study of systems, known as databases, that can efficiently store, process, and retrieve
substantial quantities of information. Undergraduate computer science programs may offer
introductory database courses although advanced study, including analysis and design of relational,
network, and hierarchical databases, generally occurs at the graduate level.

10) Information Science

This rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field examines the nature of information itself as well as the
processes by which information transfer occurs. Drawing on other fields such as
telecommunications, computer science, linguistics, philosophy, mathematics, psychology, and
sociology, information science involves the analysis and development of systems for the storage and
dissemination of information using computers, telecommunications, or other technologies.

11) Knowledge Engineering/Expert Systems

Knowledge engineering is a subfield of artificial intelligence that produces a type of computer system
called an expert system. Expert systems are computer programs designed to perform at the level of
the hum an expert, solving problems that are beyond the capability of conventional computer
systems.

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12) Management Information Systems (MIS)

MIS programs emphasize the understanding and application of computer technology to
organizational problems, the design of computer-based systems for data processing, and the design
of decision-support systems for management.

13) Neural Networks

The study of computer systems modeled after the biological nervous system. Neural networks are
designed to imitate the workings of the human brain and are used in areas such as voice and pattern
recognition and speech synthesis.

14) Robotics
A branch of computer science that applies artificial intelligence and engineering concepts to create
and program mechanical devices (robots) that are able to perform a variety of tasks including some
previously performed by humans.

15) Software Engineering

A still-evolving discipline based on computer science, computer technology, management, and
engineering economics. Concerned with the cost- effective development and modification of
computer software components, software engineering may use computer-aided software
engineering (CASE) to reduce the time required by programmers to generate new programs and
revise old ones.

16) Systems Analysis

Involves the analysis of existing computer systems and the design of new systems that meet the
specific information needs of an organization.

17) Telecommunications Engineering

A specialization that joins computer technology with information processing and distribution.
Telecommunications engineering involves the analysis and design of all systems that receive,
transmit, and deliver information.

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LESSON 10
The future of computing
Progress in computer technology over the last four decades has been spectacular, driven by Moore's
Law which, though initially an observation, has become a self-fulfilling prophecy and a board-room
planning tool. Although Gordon Moore expressed his vision of progress simply in terms of the
number of transistors that could be manufactured economically on an integrated circuit, the means
of achieving this progress was based principally on shrinking transistor dimensions, and with that
came collateral gains in performance, power-efficiency and, last but not least, cost. The
semiconductor industry appears to be confident in its ability to continue to shrink transistors, at least
for another decade or so, but the game is already changing. We can no longer assume that smaller
circuits will go faster, or be more power-efficient. As we approach atomic limits device variability is
beginning to hurt, and design costs are going through the roof. This is impacting the economics of
design in ways that will affect the entire computing and communications industries. For example, on
the desktop there is a trend away from high-speed uniprocessors towards multi-core processors,
despite the fact that general-purpose parallel programming remains one of the great unsolved
problems of computer science. If computers are to benefit from future advances in technology, then
their major challenges ahead, involving understanding how to build reliable systems on increasingly
unreliable technology and how to exploit parallelism increasingly effectively, not only to improve
performance, but also to mask the consequences of component failure. Biological systems
demonstrate many of the properties we aspire to incorporate into our engineered technology, so
perhaps that suggests a possible source of ideas that we could seek to incorporate into future novel
computation systems?

Half a century of progress

When, on June 21 1948, the Manchester ‘Baby’ computer (photo, right) first executed a program
stored in its cathode ray tube memory to produce the correct result, this signalled the start of the
modern era of computing. We will be celebrating the 60th anniversary of this singular event later
this year. Over those 60 years we have seen many developments in computer architecture that have
made machines more flexible and easier to program, but these pale into insignificance alongside the
progress in the technology used to build the machines. To see how far computer technology has
progressed over the last 60 years we can compare some of the key characteristics of machines then
and now. The ‘Baby’ (more formally called the SSEM – Small-Scale Experimental Machine) occupied
several post-office racks of electronics based on thermionic valves – vacuum tubes in American
English – and executed 700 instructions per second while consuming around 3.5 kW of electrical
power. In 1985, the first ARM processor (ARM1, pictured right) executed 6 million instructions per
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second and used 0.1 W. Today, a typical power-efficient embedded computer, such as the ARM968
that we will hear more about later, occupies 0.4 mm2 on the surface of a silicon chip using a 130nm
process. The processor has as much capacity in its registers as the Manchester Baby’s main memory.
The ARM968 delivers about 200 million instructions per second on a power budget of 20mW. One
way to compare these computing machines is on the basis of their energy efficiency – the energy
consumed to execute one instruction, which is the computer equivalent to the ‘miles per gallon’
measure for a car. Baby used 5 joules per instruction, ARM1 used 15 nanojoules per instruction, and
the ARM968 uses 100 picojoules per instruction. The ratio of the Baby and ARM968 figures points to
a staggering improvement in the energy-efficiency of computers over 60 years by a factor of 5x1010.
It is this progress that drives today’s explosion in consumer electronics and pervasive computing.
One of the ironies of the situation is that the market is growing so fast that the net contribution of
electronics to global energy consumption is also growing despite, or arguably as a direct result of,
the continuing improvements in energy-efficiency that enable the creation of ever more attractive
commodity applications.

Moore or Less?
The spectacular progress in computer technology has become intimately associated with Gordon
Moore’s 1965 prediction that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit would continue to
grow exponentially for a further 10 years, that is until 1975. That “Moore’s Law”, as it has become
universally known, continues to apply today, more than 30 years after its original ‘sell-by’ date, is a
testament to the transition from its original status as an objective extrapolation based on
observation and inside knowledge to its present position as the central boardroom planning tool of
the global semiconductor industry, epitomised by its role in the Industry Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors (ITRS). It has become a self-fulfilling prophecy; industry investment is set at the level
required to make it happen. As an illustration of how far this has gone, the 12GB microSD card
(picture, right) incorporates of the order of fifty billion transistors in a tiny package smaller than a
finger nail and just a millimetre thick. (Using multi-level cell technology, each transistor stores two
bits of data.) Along with the exponential growth in the number of transistors on an integrated circuit
have come important benefits. The primary mechanism by which this growth has been achieved is
transistor shrinkage – making transistors physically smaller through ever more demanding advances
in manufacturing technology. As transistors per Intel chip 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1970 1975 1980
1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Millions of transistors per chip 8008 8080 8086 286 386 486 Pentium
4004 Pentium II Pentium III Pentium 4 Transistors per Intel chip 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1970 1975
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Millions of transistors per chip 8008 8080 8086 286 386 486 Pentium
4004 Pentium II Pentium III Pentium 4 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
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Year Millions of transistors per chip 8008 8080 8086 286 386 486 Pentium 4004 Pentium II Pentium
III Pentium 4 were made smaller they became cheaper, switched faster, and used less energy per
function. As a result, a win-win spiral was established wherein the only restraint on how fast
transistors could shrink was the time it took to recover the investment in one technology node before
moving on the next (smaller, usually by a factor √2 in linear dimension) node. There are downsides
to this exponential progress. The cost of building a manufacturing facility (a ‘fab’) also grows
exponentially, as does the cost of designing a state-of-the-art chip. But the benefits outweigh the
drawbacks, and for those with deep enough pockets to fund the enormous up-front investment, the
chip business has been highly profitable because of its almost limitless expansion potential as digital
products become smaller, lighter, more functional and more affordable. However, exponential
growth is ultimately unsustainable. Sooner or later some limit will be reached, going beyond which
will require a technological change of a different order from that which has driven the computer
industry over the last half century. As transistors approach the dimensions of atoms current
technology will cease to work. All technologies saturate, following an ‘S’ curve that starts with
exponential growth but ends with asymptotically slow advances. There are many possible reasons
why progress in computer technology will slow, and every commentator has their favourite – device
physics, economics, power dissipation, process variability – but unless there is an as yet unforeseen
breakthrough into a completely new technology, the slowdown is almost upon us now. Over the next
decade improvement will be increasingly hard-won, with design and manufacturing costs rising
inexorably as the fundamental physics of very small devices renders their characteristics increasingly
hard to control. One manifestation of the growing cost of design is a drop-off in the number of
designs starts for complex Systems-on-Chip as the cost-effectiveness of these devices is increasingly
called into question. Another is the slowing in the establishment of new fab-less semiconductor start-
up companies (companies established to develop their own chip designs for manufacture through
third-party ‘foundry’ services), where the investment required to break-even has increased the risk
beyond the comfort limits of venture capital investors. All of these factors suggest that the future
will not be simply an extrapolation of the past – it is time for designers to rethink the trade-offs and
balances of what constitutes the optimal use of the available technology.

The first 60 years of computer technology has seen spectacular progress, exemplified by the ten
orders of magnitude improvement in computer energy-efficiency. This progress underpins the
explosion in consumer electronics products that we see today. Continuing progress is by no means
guaranteed, however, as the technology approaches atomic scale and a range of problems ranging

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from fundamental physics to design complexity and economics threaten to obstruct the way forward.
The stresses are already beginning to show, with visible changes in business practice and the shift to
multi-core processors (ahead of the software to exploit them) evident as early manifestations of the
problems ahead. Much less reliable technology will follow, forcing further changes in architecture,
design practice and, if designers are unsuccessful in fully containing these problem, discernible
changes in system robustness and performance. There are many research challenges in the road
ahead, and one promising avenue is to increase our understanding of how biology delivers reliable
systems on unreliable platforms. We could also learn something about energy-efficiency from
biology. Although we have come a long way since the first computers, we still have about a factor
one million to catch up before our machines are competitive with nature in this respect, a gap the
closing of which would be a major contribution to a sustainable future for our planet!

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