with a velocity of +2 m/s and then with a velocity

3. Motion of –2m/s.

3.1. Speed, S 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Speed is distance travelled per unit time. It
explains how fast the body is moving and it’s a 𝑠
scalar quantity. 𝑣=
𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Velocity is measured in meters/second (m/s) or

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 kilometers/hour (km/h).
The SI unit of speed is m/s.
𝑑
𝑆=
𝑡 Average velocity is calculated using:

Speed is measured in meters/second (m/s) or

kilometers/hour (km/h). 𝑢+𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑚/𝑠) =
The SI unit of speed is m/s. 2

Average speed is calculated using:

Where u is the symbol for Initial velocity and v
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 is the symbol given to final velocity.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
A Uniform Velocity means a body moving with
𝑑 a steady/constant speed in a straight line.
𝑆=
𝑡
Uniform Velocity means a body moving with a
unsteady speed in a curved path.
Exercise 1
Definition of Key Words
a) A sprinter runs 100m in 10s. Calculate
his average speed. Displacement is the space between two points
b) A bird flies 60m in 5s. Calculate its in a given direction.
average speed. Distance is the distance travelled by the objects.
c) A person jogs 400m in 40 seconds, then
200m in 22 seconds, and finally 100m in
16 seconds. What is the jogger’s average
speed?

3.2. Velocity, v

Velocity is the distance travelled per unit time in a

stated direction. It‘s a speed in a given direction
and it’s a vector quantity.

Example: Vector Quantity has with magnitudes and

A boy walks in a positive direction and then back directions.
Scalar Quantity has magnitude only.
again with a constant speed of 2 m/s, so he walks
 3.3. Acceleration, a

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a

vector measured in m/s2.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

In acceleration, a + or – sign can be used to

indicate whether the velocity is increasing or
decreasing. 1. What is his average velocity from D to home?

A negative acceleration is called deceleration/ 2. What is his average speed for the whole
retardation. journey?

Uniform acceleration means a constant (steady) 3. What is his average velocity for the whole
acceleration. journey?

Exercise 2 Home Work

1. A car takes 8s to increase its velocity from 1. A tunnel has a length of 50 km. A car takes 20
10m/s to 30m/s. What is its average min to travel between the two ends of the
acceleration? tunnel. What is the average speed of the car?

2. A truck travelling at 25m/s puts its brakes on 2. A train travelling at 30 m / s takes 3 s to pass
for 4s. This produces a retardation of 2m/s2. the child. What is the length of the train?
What does the truck’s velocity drop to?
3. 3. The speed of a cyclist reduces uniformly from
4. A car traveling at 15 m/s starts to decelerate 2.5 m/s to 1.0 m/s in 12 s.
steadily. It comes to a complete stop in 10
1. Calculate the deceleration of the cyclist.
seconds. What is its acceleration?
2. Calculate the distance travelled by
5. A train moves from rest to a speed of 25 m/s in the cyclist in this time.
30.0 seconds. What is its acceleration? 3.
4. A car travels 100km. The journey takes two
hours. The highest speed of the car is
80km/h, and the lowest speed is 40km/h.
What is the average speed for the journey?
6. How long will it take a car to accelerate from
15.2 m/s to 23.5 m/s if the car has an average
acceleration of 3.2 m/s2?
3. Consider the boundary rider in the diagram
below. He takes 3 hours to get to A, another 2
hours to get to B, 2 more to C and 3 more to D.
After a total of 12 hours he is back home.
 3.4. Motion Graphs 3.4.2. Velocity -Time Graphs

Plotting velocity against time can tell you a lot about

3.4.1. Distance-Time Graphs motion. Let's look at the axes: Time is always plotted on the
X-axis (bottom of the graph). Velocity/speed is plotted on
Plotting distance against time can tell you a lot about the Y-axis (side of the graph).
motion. Let's look at the axes: Time is always plotted on the
X-axis (bottom of the graph). Distance is plotted on the Y-
axis (side of the graph).

Describing Uniform Motion Graphs

3. If an object is moving at a constant speed/velocity, a

Describing Uniform Motion Graphs horizontal line is shown on a velocity-time graph.

1. If an object is not moving, a horizontal line is shown on

a distance-time graph. Time is increasing and
velocity does not

Velocity
change. It is not
Time is increasing moving. The object is
and distance does moving with constant
not change. It is not velocity/speed.
moving. We say it is
At Rest.
4. If an object is moving at a constant acceleration it
means it has the same increase in velocity/speed in a
given time:
Time is increasing to
the right, and velocity
Velocity

2. If an object is moving at a constant speed, it means it is increasing constantly

has the same increase in distance in a given time: with time. The object
moves at a constant
acceleration.
Time is increasing to
the right, and
distance is increasing Non-Uniform Graphs
constantly with time.
The object moves at
a constant speed.
Velocity

Non-Uniform Graphs

The line on this graph is curving upwards it shows increase

in acceleration and when is curving downwards it shows
decrease in acceleration

The line on this graph is curving upwards it shows increase

in speed/velocity and when is curving downwards it shows
decrease in speed/velocity.
 3.4.3. Calculating acceleration and distance Exercise 3

Study the graph below that shows a displacement-time graph

of a carts motion and answer all the questions

Question 1

The motion of car is indicated in the graph above, 1. In which section(s) is the cart accelerating?
use it to answer the question below.
2. In which section(s) is the cart not moving?
1. The acceleration; OA and AB
2. The distance travelled; OA and AB
3. In which section(s) is the cart moving backwards?
Solutions
4. In which section(s) is the cart’s instantaneous velocity at
From O to A the car is moving with a constant any time equal to its average velocity?
acceleration.
5. What is the velocity of the cart in these sections?
1. Acceleration OA is

𝑢 = 0 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 3 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡 = 2𝑠, 𝑎 = ___ , 𝑠 = __ , a) a-b

b) c-d
c) e-f
𝑣−𝑢 3𝑚/𝑠 − 0𝑚/𝑠 d) f-g
𝑎= = = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 2𝑠
6. How far does the cart move in section?
Acceleration AB is ZERO because velocity is
constant.
a) b-c
2. Distance travelled OA is b) e-f

𝑣+𝑢 3𝑚/𝑠 + 0𝑚/𝑠 Exercise 4

𝑠= 𝑡= 2𝑠 = 3 𝑚
2 2
Study the graph below that shows a displacement-time graph
or of a car’s motion and answer all the questions

AREA OF TRIANGLE FOR OA

1 1
𝐴 = 𝑠 = 𝑏 × ℎ = (2 𝑠 × 3 𝑚/𝑠) = 3 𝑚
2 2

Distance travelled AB is

𝑣+𝑢 3𝑚/𝑠 + 3𝑚/𝑠

𝑠= 𝑡= 4𝑠 = 6 𝑚
2 2 1. In which section is the car accelerating from rest? ____
2. In which section is the car’s acceleration negative? ____
or 3. How far does the car travel during section “b”? _______
4. What is the acceleration of the car in each section?
AREA OF A SQUARE FOR AB a) a
b) b
𝐴 = 𝑠 = 𝑙 × 𝑤 = (4 𝑠 × 3 𝑚/𝑠) = 12 𝑚
 3.5. Equations of Motion 3.5.5. Worked Examples

In these equations of motion, acceleration used is Question 1

considered as constant acceleration.
Tom is cycling at constant speed of 3m/s. watching his
friend Kim from a distance, Tom accelerates at 0.2 m/s2 for
All the symbols are in S.I units i.e. s is in 𝒎, 𝒖 and 𝒗 is in
20 seconds to catch up with him. Find the velocity of Tom
m/s, t is in seconds and 𝒂 is in m/s2. just before he catches up with Kim.

3.5.1. First Equation Solution

𝑢 = 3𝑚/𝑠 𝑎 = 0.2𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 = 20𝑠 𝑣 =?

The equations of motion relating to acceleration (a), initial
velocity (u), final velocity (v) and time (t). Using the first equation of motion to calculate 𝑣;

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
= 3𝑚/𝑠 + (0.2𝑚/𝑠 × 20𝑠)

= 7𝑚/𝑠
3.5.2. Second Equation Question 2
The equation of motion relating to displacement (s), initial
A racer car starts from rest and acquires an acceleration of
velocity (u), final velocity (v) and time (t). 5m/s2 after 10 seconds.

Find the displacement covered by car in 10 seconds.

Solution

𝑢+𝑣 𝑠 =? 𝑎 = 5𝑚/𝑠 𝑢 = 0𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 = 10𝑠

𝑠= 𝑡
2
Using the third equation of motion to calculate 𝑠;

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
3.5.3. Third Equation
1
= 0 + 5𝑚/𝑠 × 100𝑠
2
The equation of motion relating to displacement (s), initial
velocity (u), acceleration (a) and time (t). = 250𝑚

Question 3
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 A train decelerates from 15m/s to rest in 10s. Calculate the
2
distance covered.

3.5.4. Forth Equation Solution

The equation of motion relating to displacement (s), initial

𝑠 =? 𝑣 = 0𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 = 10𝑠 𝑢 = 15𝑚/𝑠
velocity (u), final velocity (v) and acceleration (a).
Using the second equation of motion to calculate 𝑠;

𝑢+𝑣 0𝑚/𝑠 + 15𝑚/𝑠

𝑠= 𝑡= 10𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠 2 2

= 𝟕𝟓𝒎
 3.6. MOTION OF FALLING BODIES Question 1

3.6.1. Acceleration due to Gravity A stone is falling straight down from the top of the cliff
and it takes 3s to reach ground. (Ignore air resistance &
When an object is allowed to fall, it does so with steadily
increasing velocity and it experiences a constant g=10m/s2)

acceleration.
a) What is the height of the cliff?
b) What is the final velocity?
This acceleration is due to gravity and is denoted by g. Its
Solution
value varies over the Earth and it’s about 9.8m/s that is close
to 10m/s.
a) 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑡 = 10𝑚/𝑠 × 3𝑠 = 45m

The velocity of free falling body therefore increases by 10m/s b) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑔𝑠

every second. A ball thrown upwards with a velocity of
30m/s decelerates by 10m/s every second and reach the 𝑣 = (0𝑚/𝑠) + 2 × 10𝑚/𝑠 × 45𝑚
highest point after 3 seconds.
𝑣= 900𝑚/𝑠 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
3.6.2. Calculations

In calculation using the equation of motion, g replaces a. It is

a positive sign for a falling bodies and negative sign for a
rising bodies since they are decelerating. 3.6.4. Motion Graphs

Decelerating Accelerating

v = 0m/s u = 0m/s
3.6.5. Terminal Velocity
g=-10m/s2 g=10m/s2
The terminal velocity of an object falling towards the earth is
the speed at which the weight is equal to the air resistance.

At this speed, the object does not accelerate and falls at

constant speed. The terminal velocity
Equations of Motion of falling Bodies
whose value is depends upon the size,
shape, volume and weight of the
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
object.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑔𝑠
At low speeds the air resistance is much
1 less than the gravitational force and so
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2 the object accelerates. As it speeds up the air resistance
increases, until eventually it equals the weight.
3.6.3. Worked Example
 Points to note
4. Mass & weight
 On the moon, your weight (in newtons) would be less
4.1. Mass, m than on earth, because the moon’s gravitational field is
The mass of an object is a measure of the weaker
amount/quantity of matter in it. It is constant everywhere.  Even on earth, your weight can vary slightly from place
to place, because the earth’s gravitational field strength
All matter has a built in opposition to being moved if it is at varies.
rest or, if it is moving, to having its motion changed. This  Moving away from the Earth, your weight decreases. If
property of matter is called inertia (from the Latin word for you could go deep into space, and be free of any
laziness). gravitational pull, your weight would be zero.

Note that the greater the mass of a body the greater is its 4.3. The Difference between Weight and Mass
inertia i.e. the more difficult it is to move it when at rest and
to stop it when in motion. Mass Weight

(i) Is a measure of body’s Is a measure of the pull of

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
Inertia. Or a property that gravity on a body or the
resists change in motion gravitational force on a body.
1kg = 1000g thus 1g = 0.001kg
(ii) Mass is constant Weight varies from place to
everywhere place
4.2. Weight, w
(iii) SI unit is kilogram (kg) SI unit Newton (N)
Weight is another name for the earth’s gravitational
force on an object. (iv) Mass is a scalar quantity Weight is vector quantity (has
(has only, magnitude) both magnitude and direction)

Weight is the gravitational pull on a body by the earth. Or (v) Mass is best measured Weight is best measured using
Weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on a body. using beam balance spring balance.
A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences
a force due to gravitational attraction.
4.4. Centre of Mass/Gravity
This is the point at which the whole mass of the body can be
The direction of the weight of a body is always towards the
taken as acting through. The CM for regular shaped objects is
centre of the earth. The nearer the body is to the centre of
in the centre.
the earth the more the earth attracts it.

4.4.1. Regular and Uniform objects

Weight is a kind of force; therefore its SI unit is newton (N)
 The geometrical centre of some common shapes-

Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity

w= mg
The weight of a body varies from place to place.

 This is also where the centre of gravity and the object’s

And since the g varies from place to place due to the
weight, w, can be considered to act.
variation in the distance from the centre of the earth, so does
the weight of a body.
 4.4.2. Centre of Mass/Gravity of an irregular shape 4.5.1. States of Equilibrium

Find the Centre of Gravity of an irregular shaped lamina Stable Equilibrium: The body is in stable equilibrium if
when it is slightly it retains its original position.

Neutral Equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if

when it is displaced, the position of the Centre of Mass
remains unchanged i.e. it is neither raised nor lowered.

Unstable Equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it

does not return to its original position after a slight
displacement.

 Hang up the object.

 Suspend a plumb line from the same place.
 Mark the position of the thread.
 The centre of mass is along the line of thread
 Repeat the above steps with object suspended from a
Stable Unstable Neutral
different place.
 The centre of mass is where the line crosses.
4.5.2. Factors that Affect Stability
4.5. Stability  Contact area with base
For an object to start rotating it needs to have unbalanced
o The larger the contact area with the base,
moment acting on it. the greater the stability.

 Position of Centre of Gravity

o The lower Centre of Gravity, the greater the

stability

4.5.3. Class Work

1. Which point is the centre of mass of the

An object becomes unstable when its Centre of Gravity falls objects below?
outside of the object’s base.
Why?
All of the object’s weight can be considered as acting
through the Centre of Gravity. If this acts outside the base
then it will cause a turning effect or a moment a. b.

The Traffic Cone

c.

 A great example of a VERY stable object.

 What features of the cone make it so stable?
o Low Centre of Gravity d.
o Wide base
 5.1.3. Newton’s third Law of Motion
5. Force
A force is a push or a pull, exerted by one object on another. If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert
It has direction as well as magnitude (size), so it’s a vector. an equal but opposite force on object A or, more simply: To
The SI unit of force is the newton (N). every action there is an equal but opposite reaction

5.1. Laws of Motion 5.2. Effects of forces

A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body;
5.1.1. Newton’s first Law of Motion give acceleration or deceleration or a change in direction
A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues to move with depending on the direction of the force.
uniform velocity, unless an external force makes it behave
5.2.1. Effects of forces
differently.
a) Effects on Shape and Size
Balanced forces
An object may have several forces on it. But if the forces are Force can extend the length of an object.
in balance, they cancel each other out. Then, the object Example is an Extension/load graph investigated by Robert
behaves as if there is no force on it at all. With Balanced Hooke.
forces on it, an object is either at rest, or moving at steady
velocity in a straight line. EXTENSION / LOAD (FORCE) EXPERIMENT

Hooke’s Law:

“The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force

applied on it, provided the elastic limit of the spring is not
5.1.2. Newton’s second Law of Motion
exceeded.”
One newton is defined as the force, which gives a mass of 1kg
an acceleration of 1m/s2. Stretching force F is directly proportional (⋉) to the
extension x.
1N = 1kgm/s2
Unbalanced forces F⋉x

When unbalanced forces act something, then the state of F = kx

motion changes. An unbalanced force causes acceleration;
the body on which the force acts might speed up, slow down,
or change direction.
F=ma
It takes as
Resultant force (N) =Mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s2) much force
to stretch a
spring twice
as far.
Example 1
What is the resultant force and acceleration of the 10kg
block below?
k is the spring constant

10kg Hooke’s law holds when a force applied to a spring, a straight

50N 150 N
metal wire, elastic band or cotton thread. If too much load is
applied to the spring it deforms and does not return to its
The acceleration when
original length after removing the load. The spring is said to
i. Resultant force = 150 – 50 =100N
ii. F = ma have undergone plastic deformation; the load applied has
100N = 10a exceeded the elastic limit (E) or limit of proportionality,
a = 10 m/s2
 Class Work

1. What is Mass M in figure below?

2. Fig. 1.1 shows a mass hanger attached to a spring. The

mass hanger is 7.0 cm from the tabletop. When a load
of 15 N is placed on the mass hanger, the distance
between the tabletop and the mass hanger becomes 4.0
Key Notes cm.

Limit of proportionality (E): point at which load and

The extension of the spring is proportional to the load.
extension are no longer proportional.

Elastic limit (E): point at which the spring will not

return to its original shape after being stretched.

b) Effects on Motion

Isaac Newton in his second law of motion described the

relation between force applied on an object, the mass of an
A 30 N load is placed on the mass hanger. Calculate the
object and its acceleration. The two parts of the law says
distance between the tabletop and the mass hanger.
that:
3. Fig. 5.1 shows a boy pushing a box.
i. The net force applied on an object is directly proportional to
the acceleration of an object:

Net Force ∝ acceleration

F∝a
Fig. 5.1
ii. The mass of an object is inversely proportional to the
acceleration of an object: The boy finds it difficult to start moving the box.
𝟏
Acceleration ∝ a) What property of the box makes it difficult to start
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
moving?
b) The box has a weight of 500 N. What is the mass of the
1
𝒂∝ box? Take g as 10 N/kg.
𝒎
c) The box accelerates at 0.1 m/s2. Calculate the resultant
F = ma force on the box.
d) Calculate the total force applied to the box if the
Where ‘F’ is the net force applied in newtons, N, ‘m’ is the friction force is 115 N.
mass of an object in kilogram and ‘a’ is the acceleration in e) On Fig. 5.1, draw an arrow to show the direction of the
m/s2. friction force. Label it F
f) Suggest one way of reducing friction between the box
and the floor.
 The turning effects of force-Moment Law of moments

The turning effect of force is called moment of force or When an object is in equilibrium the total clockwise
torque or simply moment. The moment of force depends on moments about the pivot is equal to the total anticlockwise
two things: moments about the same pivot.

o The size of the force and;

Total Clockwise Total Anticlockwise
o Perpendicular distance from the force applied to the =
moment of force moment of force
pivot.

The unit is the newton-meter (N.m)

Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance of the force

from pivot or fulcrum

M(Nm)=F(N)×d(m)

Class Exercise

i. Calculate the moment.

ii. Explain why a mechanic would choose a long-arm
spanner to undo a tight nut.