Highway Materials

Chapter 6
6.1 Classification of Highway Materials :
1. Mineral materials:
• Subgrade soil
• Fine aggregates
• Gravel
• Slag, brick pebbles, etc.
2. Binding Materials:
• Stone dust
• Cement, lime
• Bitumen, tar
3. Common Building materials:
• Reinforcing steel
• Timber
• Stone, bricks, etc.
6.2 Subgrade soil: Desirable properties
Stability
• Resistance to permanent deformation, weathering.
Incompressibility
• Should not compress upon application of surcharge.
Strength
• Higher strength desired. Permanency of strength under varied moisture and
weather condition.
Change in volume
• Minimum change in volume of soil should be ensured.
Drainage
• To avoid excessive moisture and frost action.
Ease of compaction
• Higher dry density with minimum compaction effort for increased strength.
 Soil Subgrade strength
Factors on which the strength characteristics of soil depend are:
• Soil type
• Moisture content
• Dry density
• Internal structure of soil
• Type and mode of stress application
# California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
(for evaluating the stability of soil subgrade for design of pavement thickness)
Apparatus:
Mould
• 15 cm internal diameter
• 175 mm height
• Base plate – 10 mm thick
• Collar – 50 mm height
Loading frame
• Moves at 1.25 mm/min
• Plunger – 50 mm dia, 100 mm long
Dial gauge
Spacer disc, annular metal weight
Miscellaneous apparatus like scales, mixing bowl, filter paper, jar
Procedure (Normal specimen):
• Take 4.5‐5 kg of soil & mix it thoroughly with required quantity of
water (OMC) or field moisture content.
• The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base
plate & a coarse filter paper is placed over the spacer disc.
• The moist soil is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting
either IS light or heavy compaction.
• After compacting the last layer, the collar is removed & the excess of
soil above the top of the mould is evenly trimmed off.
• The clamps are removed & the mould with the compacted soil is lifted,
leaving below the base plate & spacer disc is removed.
 Procedure (For Soaked specimen):
• A filter paper is placed on the base plate, the mould with soil is inverted
& placed over the base plate& clamps are tightened.
• Weight of 2.5‐5 kg are placed over the soil in the mould.
• Then the whole mould is placed in the water tank to allow soaking for 4
days.
• The sample is then allowed to drain off water in a vertical position for 15
minutes, and sample is weighed to calculate water absorbed.
• After 4 days of soaking, the mould is clamped over the base plate & the
same surcharge weights are placed on the specimen as the test could be
conducted.
 Procedure:
• The complete assembly is placed under the loading machine.
• Penetration plunger is brought in contact with the top surface of the soil
by applying 4 kg of load.
• The dial gauge of proving ring & the penetration dial gauge is set on 0.
• The load is applied through penetration rate of 1.25 mm/min.
• The load readings are taken at 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5,
10.0, 12.5 mm of penetration.
• Finally, the CBR value is calculated from the formulae.
• As per IRC recommendation the min. value of CBR required for a
subgrade should be 8%.
CBR..
• Two values of CBR will be obtained.
• If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0 mm penetration,
the former is adopted.
• If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher
than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking.
• If the check test again gives similar results, then higher value
obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR value.
• The average CBR value of three test specimens is reported as the
CBR value of the sample.
 6.3 Road Aggregates:
Desirable Properties:
• Strength
• Hardness
• Toughness
• Durability
• Shape of Aggregate
• Adhesion with bitumen
• Cementation
 Desirable properties
Strength
• The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to
(i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load,
(ii) Wear and tear,
(iii) Crushing.
• For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should posses high resistance to crushing,
and to withstand the compressive stresses due to traffic wheel load.
• Crushing test

Hardness
• Resistance to abrasion
• The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic, the aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action
caused by the movements of traffic .
• The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the aggregates
exposed at the top surface.
• Los Angles Abrasion test (LAA Test)
Desirable Properties
Toughness
• Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness.
• Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the effect
caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to
another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates.
• Impact test is used
Desirable properties
Shape of aggregates
• Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have
rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated particles.
• It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the
same aggregate.
• Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as
far as possible.
Adhesion with bitumen
• The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with
water when compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the
bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence of
water.
• Stripping test
 Desirable properties
Durability
• The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is
called soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the physical and
chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-in and that
of atmosphere.
• Hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the construction
should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
• Soundness test
Tests on Aggregate:

• Descriptive tests: define by visual examination

• Non Destructive quality tests
• Destructive tests
• Durability tests and specific gravity tests
Remember ( DN DD)
Descriptive test
• Visual examination of aggregate
• Particle shape may be described as rounded, irregular, flaky, angular,
elongated
• Surface texture may be glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline,
honeycombed, porous, etc.

Significances:
• Most suitable for classifying aggregate
• Very useful to judge the frictional properties of aggregates
Non Destructive quality tests:
• Gradation test
• Shape test
• Flakiness index (<0.6 times mean dimension)
• Elongation index (>1.8 times mean dimension)
• Angularity Number (0‐11 )
• Specific gravity and water absorption
Gradation test
• Gradation/ Sieve analysis/ screen analysis/ mechanical analysis
• Result may be expressed either by total percentage passing or
retained on each sieve or as the percentage retained between two
successive sieves
• The sieves are suitably graded from top to bottom
Significances:
• Proper grading influences construction quality and cost of
construction of pavement
• Contributes to uniformity, workability, and plasticity of the material as
it is mixed
Shape Test
1. Flakiness index:
• The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the
percentage of flaky and elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are
flaky or elongated are detrimental (cause harm) to higher workability
and stability of mixes.
• The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of
aggregate particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 (3/5 th)
times their mean size.
• Test procedure had been standardized in IS:2386 Part -I
Flakiness index

Flakiness index
2. Elongation index:

elongation index
3. Angularity Number (AN)
(Interlocking, Workability)
4. Water absorption:
5. Specific Gravity Test:
Destructive tests: ‐
Crushing test
• Surface coarse ≤ 30%
• Base course ≤ 45%
Abrasion test
• For cement concrete ≤ 16%
• Bituminous surface coarse ≤ 30%
• Bituminous base course ≤ 50%
Impact test
• 20% ‐ 30% = satisfactory for road surface
• > 35% = weak for road surface
Soundness test
• ≤ 12% loss for sodium sulphate, ≤ 18% loss for Mg
Bitumen adhesion test ≤ 25%
Crushing Test

• The aggregate crushing value provides relative measure of the

resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load.

Significance:
• Gives idea about resistance of aggregate to gradual loading
Crushing Test: Apparatus
• Steel Cylinder
• Sieves (12.5mm, 10mm)
• Cylindrical metal measure
• Tamping Rod
• Balance (0‐10kg)
• Oven
• Compression testing Machine (2000KN)
Crushing Test: Procedure: ‐
• Test sample consist of aggregate passing a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on
a 10mm IS sieve.
• The aggregate to be tested is dried in oven for a period of not less than 4
hours.
• The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each
layer is tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the
surplus aggregate struck off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
• The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the
nearest gram (WA).
• The surface is leveled and the plunger is inserted so that it rests horizontally
on the surface.
• The whole assembly is then placed between the platens of testing machine
and loaded at a uniform rate so as to reach a load of 40 tones in 10 minutes.
Crushing Test
• The load is released and all aggregate is removed from the cup and
sieved on 2.36 mm until no further significant amount passes in one
minute.
• The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g
(WB)
• The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total sample weight in
each test is to be expressed as a percentage, to the first decimal
place.
• Aggregate crushing Value =(WB/WA) × 100
• A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while
above 35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates
Abrasion Test: ‐

• To test the hardness property of aggregates.

• The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage
wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel
balls used as abrasive charge.
Significance:
• Decide whether aggregate is suitable for different pavement
construction works.
Apparatus: ‐
• Circular drum Internal diameter 700 mm
• Length 520 mm Mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated
• Abrasive charge : Cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters
• Weight 340‐445 g
• The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading
of the sample.
 Procedure: ‐

• The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation

and usually ranges from 5‐10 kg.
• The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30‐33 rpm for
a total of 500 ‐1000 revolutions depending
upon the gradation of aggregates.
• After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm
sieve and passed fraction is expressed as: percentage total weight of
the sample.
• This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
 Impact Test: ‐
• The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness.
• Due to movement of vehicles on the road, the aggregates are
subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down into smaller
pieces.
• The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist
their disintegration due to impact.
• The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden
impact or shock, which may differ from its resistance to gradually
applied compressive load.
• Significance:
Gives Idea About Toughness Of Aggregate.
 Apparatus:
Testing machine, Metal base with 30
cm diameter, Cylindrical steel cup
• Internal diameter 102 mm, Depth 50
mm, Minimum thickness 6.3 mm
• Metal hammer, Weighing 13.5 to
14.0 kg
• Free fall of hammer should be within
380±5 mm.
• Tamping rod, 10 mm in diameter,
230 mm long
• A balance
 Procedure:
• Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0 mm IS sieves.
• Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3rd depth of measuring
cylinder.
• Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end
of the tamping rod.
• Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
• Strike off the surplus aggregates.
• Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).
• Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on
the level plate, block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide
columns are vertical
 Procedure:
• Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate
sample.
• Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second between
successive falls.
• Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36
mm IS sieves until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
• Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm. Also,
weigh the fraction retained in the sieve.
• And the impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing
sieve to the total weight of the sample
• Result: Aggregate impact value <= 10 % Exceptionally strong
10-20 % strong
20-30 % Satisfactory for road surfacing
>35 % Weak for road surfacing
Soundness Test:

• This test is intended to study the resistance of coarse and fine

aggregates to weathering action
• To judge the durability of the coarse aggregate.
Soundness test
 Procedure:
• Wash the coarse aggregate and dry the material in an oven maintained
at a temp of 105 to 110 C, till it attains a constant mass.
• Sieve the dried sample to separate it into different size fractions using
sieves of sizes 80 mm, 63 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm.
should follow recommended mix proportion.
• Take individual samples in a wire mesh basket and immerse it in the
solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for not less than
16 hours nor more than 18 hours, in such a manner that the solution
covers them to a depth of at least 15 mm.
• After completion of the immersion period, remove the samples from
solution and allow it to drain for 15 minutes and place it in drying oven
 Procedure:

• Dry the sample until it attains a constant mass and then remove it from
oven and cool it to room temperature.
• After cooling again immerse it in the solution as described earlier
• After completion of the final cycle and after the sample has been cooled,
wash it to free from sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate solution.
• This may be determined when there is no reaction of the wash water with
barium chloride.
• Sieve the fine aggregates over the same sieve on which it was retained
before test.
• Sieve the coarse aggregate over the sieve shown below for the appropriate
size of particles.
 Result:

• Weight of each fraction of sample before the test.

• Material from each fraction of the sample passing through the
specified IS sieve, expressed as a percentage by weight of the
fraction.
• In the case of particles coarser than 20 mm size before the test, the
number of particles in each fraction before the test and the number
of particles affected classified as to the number disintegrating,
splitting, crumbling , cracking, flaking etc.
 Bitumen adhesion test:
• Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they
are dry and free from dust.
• Adhesion problem occur when the aggregates is too wet and cold
• Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite simple.
• Aggregate passing on 25 mm sieve and retained on 12.5 mm IS sieve and
take weight about 200 gm
• Heat the binder and aggregate with about 5% binder by weight of aggregate
• The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder
in water maintained at 40 C temperature for 24 hours.
• Determine the stripping value in the nearest whole number
• More the stripping value, poorer the aggregate from the point of view of
adhesion.
• IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed
25%.
6.4 Bituminous Road Binders
Bitumen:
• Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is
refined.
• A wide variety of refinery processes, such as the straight distillation
process, solvent extraction process etc. may be used to produce
bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties.
• Depending on the sources and characteristics of the crude oils and
on the properties of bitumen required, more than one processing
method may be employed.
Bituminous Road Binders
 Cutback Bitumen: ‐
• Bitumen with low viscosity achieved by addition of volatile diluents. (kerosene, oil,
diesel)
• Petroleum oil mixed to reduce the viscosity.
Advantages:
• Substitute of heating.
• Suitable for direct application.
• Liquefying effect last over long period of time.
• Good manual mixing.
• Can be transported to long distance/time without setting.
Types:
• Slow curing ( low volatile oils) (diesel)
• Medium curing ( medium volatile) (Kerosene)
• Rapid curing ( highly volatile gasoline) (petrol)
 Bitumen Emulsion:
• Bitumen is emulsified by dispersing its ions into a emulsifier ( combine).
Advantages:
• Eliminates the need to heat aggregates and binder.
• Reduces pollution
• Used in cold weather
• Patching and repair works
• Sealing cracks.
Types:
• Rapid setting
• Medium setting
• Slow setting
 Tar: ‐
• Viscous liquid obtained by destructive distillation when organic materials
are distilled in absence of air.
• Coal tar, wood tar

Grades of Tar:
• RT‐1: low viscosity
• RT‐2: surface painting
• RT‐3: premixing of chips for top course
• RT‐4: Premixing macadam in base course
• RT‐5: Grouting – high viscosity
 Difference between Bitumen and Tar
Bitumen (Black / Dark Brown) Tar (Black / Dark Brown)
• Produced from distillation of crude • Produced by destructive distillation
oil. of wood/coal.
• Better weather resistance. • Poor weather resistance.
• Lesser affection with aggregate in • Better affection with aggregate in
presence of water. presence of water.
• Less temperature susceptible. • More temperature susceptible.
• Viscosity does not varies greatly • Viscosity varies greatly with
with temperature. temperature.
 Test of bitumen:
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Viscosity test
4. Softening point test
5. Flash and fire test
6. Float test
7. Solubility test
8. Spot test
9. Specific gravity test
10. Loss on heating test
11. Water content test
(First four tests are also called consistency tests and indicates the property of binder to flow)
Test of Bitumen: Penetration Test
• Measurement of hardness
or consistency of bitumen.
• Suitability of bitumen for
its use at different climate.
 Procedure:
• Depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will
penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
• The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g.
• The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and
poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected
penetration.
• The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 C.
• A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to
50 at standard test conditions.
• In hot climates and heavy traffic, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
• Lower penetration grade means harder bitumen.
Ductility test: ‐
Measurement of adhesive property of bitumen and ability to stretch
Ductility Test: ‐
• Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or
briquette of the material will be elongated without breaking.
• Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square.
• The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on
a plate. These samples with mould are cooled in the air and then in water
bath at 27C.
• The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife. Then
the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath of the
ductility machine for about 90 minutes.
• Hook carefully to the mould to the machine and apply the load @50
mm/min
• A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS.
• Binder material having insufficient ductility gets cracked when subjected to
repeated loading or in cold weather and provides pervious pavement
surface.
 Viscosity test: ‐
• Viscosity affects the binder’s ability to spread, and fill voids between
aggregates
• Higher viscous may not fill up the voids.
• Lower viscous does not hold the aggregate together.

Equipment
• Orifice viscometer
• Sample collector
• Thermometer
Viscosity test:
• Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a
measure of resistance to flow.
• At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences
the strength of resulting paving mixes.
• Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed
to result in lower stability values.
• The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml
bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard
test conditions and specified temperature.
• Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4 mm orifice at 25
C or 10 mm orifice at 25 to 40 C.
• Higher the time, greater is the viscosity.
Softening Point test: ‐
• Helps to find up to which temperature, bitumen be heated for
application
Softening point Test: ‐
• Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains
a particular degree of softening under the specifications of test (semi
solid to liquid state).
• The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
• A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid
like water or glycerin at a given temperature.
• A steel ball (3.5gm) is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid
medium is heated at a rate of 5 ᵒC per minute.
• Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal
plate which is at a specified distance below.
• Generally, higher softening point ( higher grade of bitumen) indicates
lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
 Flash and fire Point test:-
• Helps to find temperature up-to which bitumen can be safely heated.
Flash and fire point Test: ‐
• At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen
materials leave out volatiles.
• These volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is
essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade.
• BIS defined the flash point as the temperature (175 C) at which the
vapor of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under
specified test conditions.
• The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified
test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and
burns at least for 5 seconds.
 Float test: ‐
• At certain range of consistency, neither
penetration nor viscometer defines viscosity. In
such case float test is used.
Procedure:
• Fill in the test specimen in the collar (mould)
and to cool to a temperature of 5ᵒC and screw
to the float
• Put the float assembly to float in the water
bath maintained at 50 ᵒC
• Measure the time require in seconds for water
to force its entry
• This measured time is the float value
• Higher the float value, stiffer is the material
Other tests:

• Specific gravity test

• Solubility test (carbon- Disulphide)
• Spot test
• Loss on heating test
• Water content test
Solubility test:-
• Pure bitumen is completely soluble in solvents like carbon-disulphide and
carbon tetrachloride.
• Any impurity in the bitumen can be determined by dissolving the bitumen in
any of the two solvents
Procedure:
• A sample of about 2 gm of bitumen is dissolved in about 100 ml of solvent
• The solution is filtered and the insoluble materials retained is washed, dried
and weighed
• It is expressed as percentage of original sample
• The insoluble materials should be preferable < 1%
• In solubility test with carbon tetrachloride, if black carbonaceous residue is
over 0.5%, the bitumen is considered as cracked
 Spot Test:-
• Suitable for detecting over heating or cracked bitumen.
• Considered to be more sensitive than the solubility test for deduction
of cracking
Procedure:
• About 2 gm of bitumen is dissolved in 10 ml of naphtha ( petroleum
product)
• A drop of this solution is taken out and placed on the filter paper , one
after one hour and second after 24 hours after the solution is prepared
• If the strain of the spot on the paper is uniform in color, the bitumen is
accepted as un-cracked
Water content test:-
• It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to
prevent foaming of the bitumen when it is heated above the boiling
point of water.
Procedure:
• Mix known weight of specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from
water
• Heating and distillate the solution
• Weigh the water collected after distillation
• The weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as
percentage by weight of the original sample.
• The allowable maximum water content should not be more than 0.2%
by weight.
 Loss on heating test:-
• When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened.
• About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of
163 ᵒC for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test.
• The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss
in weight is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.
• Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss
in weight,
• But for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in
weight is allowed
Bituminous mixes:
Definition and classification
Bitumen mixes are composed of a mixture of aggregates (coarse aggregates
& fine aggregates) with bitumen tar/ bituminous materials with or without
filler.

Coarse aggregate: materials retained on 2.36 mm sieve

Functions:
1. Imparts the stability to the mix, by the mechanical interlocking between
the particles and the frictional resistance developed at the interface
between the particles
2. Resists the abrasive actions of the traffic and withstand wear
 Bituminous mixes
Fine aggregates:
• Passing through 2.36 mm and retained on 75 micron IS Sieve

Functions:
1. Add stability to the mix by increasing the interlock
2. Fill the voids of the coarse aggregates and helps to secure dense
gradation
3. Facilitate greater load transfer from one aggregate to the other in
view of the increased number of contact points
Bituminous mixes
Filler materials:
• Materials passing through 600 micron sieve

Functions:
• Acts as the final void filling medium and completes the process of
making the mixes as the dense
• Helps to lower the temperature susceptibility of the binder and thus
helps to retains its hardness at higher temperature
Bituminous mixes:

Binder:
Functions:
• Helps to lubricate all the aggregates particles and thus facilitate to the
compaction of the mixture to the required density
• Imparts cohesion to the mixture and thus increases the stability
• Serves to water proof the layer
• Responsible for providing flexibility of the layer.
 Marshall Mix Design:
• The mix design (wet mix) determines the optimum bitumen content ( OBC)
• There are many methods available for mix design which vary in the size of
the test specimen, compaction, and other test specifications.
• Marshall method of mix design is the most popular one and is discussed
below.
Objectives:
• To determine strength ( Marshall Stability value) and flexibility (Marshall
Flow value) for the given bituminous mix
• To determine the density void analysis for the given bituminous mix
• To determine the suitability of bituminous mixture to meet the specified
criteria for surface course
Marshall mix design
• The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance
prediction measure for the Marshall mix design method.
• The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50 mm/minute.
• Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is
designated as stability.
• During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen’s
plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading.
• The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the
same time when the maximum load is recorded.
 Steps:-
• Specimen preparation Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a
temperature of 175−190oC.
• Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121 − 125 C with the first trial percentage of bitumen
(say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates). (3-4.5 )
• The heated aggregates and bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 154 − 160oC.
• The mix is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on
either side at temperature of 138 C to 149 ᵒC.
• The weight of rammer is 4.54 kg, 457 height of fall
• The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably
altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm.
• The mould is kept in water bath at 60 ᵒ C for 30 minutes
• Apply load at 50 mm/ min load in the Marshall setup
• Note down the maximum load as Marshall stability Number or value and deformation as
flow number/value
• Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above procedure.
Test Set Up
( Density void Analysis)
Properties of the mix
• The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific
gravity Gt,
• the bulk specific gravity of the mix Gm,
• percent air voids Vv,
• percent volume of bitumen Vb,
• percent void in mixed aggregate VMA and percent voids filled with
bitumen VFB.
Phase diagram
Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt
Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm
Air voids percent Vv
Percent volume of bitumen Vb
Voids in mineral aggregate VMA
• Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the
aggregates, and is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen, and is
calculated from
• VMA = Vv + Vb………………….v
• where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix,
• and Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix
Voids filled with bitumen VFB
 Determine Marshall stability and flow
• Marshall stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to
produce failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed
temperature placed in a special test head and the load is applied at a
constant strain (5 cm per minute).
• While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the
vertical deformation of the specimen.
• The deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is
called the Marshall flow value of the specimen.
 Apply stability correction
• It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the standard
specification of 63.5 mm.
• Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those which would have
been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm.
• This is done by multiplying each measured stability value by an appropriated correlation
factors as given in Table below
 Prepare graphical plots
• The average value of the above properties are determined for each
mix with different bitumen content and the following graphical plots
are prepared:
1. Binder content versus corrected Marshall stability
2. Binder content versus Marshall flow
3. Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix
4. Binder content versus VMA
5. Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
6. Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm)
Determine optimum bitumen content
• Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average
value of the following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in
the previous step.
1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air
voids (Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
• The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with Marshall mix design
specification chart given in Table below.
• Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the
pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy
moving loads.