P-N Junction

A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two

semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a
semiconductor.

The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes
and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a
semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping. The
process of doping is explained in further detail in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a

small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get
converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region
and n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The processes
that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types – diffusion
and drift. As we know, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to
the n-side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give
rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

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 When an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized
donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes
on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-side of the junction.
Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, and ionized
acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of
negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge
and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion
region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the
junction, an electric field direction from a positive charge towards the
negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-
side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This motion is
termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is opposite
to that of the diffusion current.

There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode: P-type and N-
type.

There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based
on the voltage applied:

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  Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction
diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is

connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the
n-type.

 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is

connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery

and the n-type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction is said to be
forward-biased. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric
field at the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposite
directions. When both the electric fields add up the resultant electric field
has a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less
resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance
becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the
voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely
negligible and the current flows across it unimpeded.

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Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery

and the n-type is connected to the positive side then the p-n junction is said
to be reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied
electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the
resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field
creating a more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region
becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

Current flow in PN junction diode

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the
junction takes place when there is an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the
flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the junction takes place
along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the concentration
gradient between both sides of the terminals. Because of the formation of the
concentration gradient, there will be a flow of charge carriers from higher
concentration regions to lower concentration regions. The movement of
charge carriers inside the pn junction is the reason behind the current flow in
the circuit.

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I-V Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

I-V characteristics of PN junction diode is a curve between the voltage

and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the
current is taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the I-V characteristics
curve of the PN junction diode. With the help of the curve we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they
are:

 Zero bias

 Forward bias

 Reverse bias
When the PN junction diode is under zero bias condition, there is no
external voltage applied and this means that the potential barrier at the
junction does not allow the flow of current.

When the PN junction diode is under forward bias condition, the p-

type is connected to the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to
the negative terminal of the external voltage. In this manner, there is a

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reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7
V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential
barriers decreases and there is a flow of current. When the diode is in
forward bias , the current increases slowly and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode is overcoming the potential barrier.
Once the potential barrier is overcome by the diode, the diode behaves
normal and the curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases and the
curve so obtained is linear.

When the PN junction diode is under reverse bias condition, the p-

type is connected to the negative terminal while the n-type is connected to
the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in an increase in the
potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as
minority carriers are present in the junction. When the applied voltage is
increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy which
affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down.
This may also destroy the diode.

Applications of PN Junction Diode

 p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is

sensitive to the light when the configuration of the diode is reverse-
biased.

 It can be used as a solar cell.

 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting

applications.

 It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as a voltage-

controlled oscillator in varactors.

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Zener diode

A normal p-n junction diode does not operate in breakdown region

because the excess current permanently damages the diode. Normal p-n
junction diodes are not designed to operate in reverse breakdown region.
Therefore, a normal p-n junction diode does not operate in reverse
breakdown region.

Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode.
Hence, it has very thin depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more
electric current than the normal p-n junction diodes. A zener diode is a
special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased
condition. The name zener diode was named after the American physicist
Clarance Melvin Zener who discovered the zener effect. Zener diodes are
the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. In zener diode, electric
current flows from both anode to cathode and cathode to anode. Symbol of
zener diode is given bellow

There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode:

 Zener breakdown.

 Avalanche breakdown

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 Avalanche breakdown

The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes
at high reverse voltage. When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n
junction diode, the free electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount
of energy and accelerated to greater velocities. The free electrons moving at
high speed will collides with the atoms and knock off more electrons. These
electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are
generated. As a result, electric current in the diode increases rapidly. This
sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroys the normal
diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are
carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

 Zener breakdown
The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes
because of their narrow depletion region. When reverse biased voltage
applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion region generates
strong electric field. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode
reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion region is
strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence
electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of
depletion region will breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance
electrons which break bonding with parent atom will become free electrons.
This free electrons carry electric current from one place to another place. At

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zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases
the electric current.

VI characteristics of Zener diode

The VI characteristics of a zener diode is shown in the below figure.

When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a
normal diode. However, when reverse biased voltage is applied to the zener
diode, it works in different manner.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only

a small amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than zener voltage.
When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode reaches zener
voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a
small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current.
Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called
zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown
that does damage the device.

The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is depends on the

amount of doping applied. If the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown
occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand, if the diode is lightly

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doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages. Zener diodes
are available with zener voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V.

Advantages of zener diode

 Power dissipation capacity is very high

 High accuracy

 Small size

 Low cost

Applications of zener diode

 Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.

 Zener diodes are used in switching operations

 Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.

 Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits

Breakdown Characteristic Graph

The graphical representation of the Avalanche and Zener breakdown is
shown in the figure below.

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 Key Differences Between Avalanche & Zener Breakdown
1. The breakdown which occurs because of the collision of the electrons
inside the PN-junction is called avalanche breakdown, whereas the Zener
breakdown occurs when the heavy electric field is applied across the PN-
junction.

2. The avalanche breakdown occurs in the thick region, whereas the Zener
breakdown occurs in the thin region.

3. After the avalanche breakdown, the junction of the diode will not regain its
original position, whereas after the Zener breakdown the junction regains
its original position.

4. The existence of the electric field is more on the Zener breakdown as

compared to the avalanche breakdown. Because the mechanism of Zener
breakdown occurs in the heavily doped region.

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5. The avalanche breakdown produces the pairs of electrons and holes
because of the thermal effects, whereas the Zener diode produces the
electrons.

6. The avalanche breakdown occurs in low doping material, whereas the

Zener breakdown occurs in high doping material.

7. The avalanche breakdown voltage causes because of high reverse potential

because it is lightly doped whereas the Zener breakdown is because of low
reverse potential.

8. The temperature coefficient of the avalanche breakdown is positive,

whereas the temperature coefficient of Zener breakdown is negative.

9. In avalanche breakdown, the mechanism of ionization occurs because of

collision of electrons, whereas in the Zener breakdown ionization occurs
because of the electric field.

10.The avalanche breakdown voltage is directly proportional to the

temperature, whereas the Zener breakdown voltage is inversely
proportional to the temperature.

11. The voltage of Zener breakdown is less than the Avalanche breakdown.

Note: The positive temperature coefficient means the temperature of the

material increases with the reverse voltage and negative temperature
coefficient means temperature decreases with the potential differences.

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