Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and

Research Vignan’s University

Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh – 522213

Environmental studies
It is a multidisciplinary subject where we deal with different aspects using a holistic
approach. It is evolving to be the education for sustainable and ethical development both
at a local and global level. It helps to prepare the next generation and to plan appropriate
strategies for addressing environmental issues. Environmental education enhances the
public awareness and helps to take decisions towards environmentally responsible
actions.
OBJECTIVES
 Students can manage, train and conduct basic and applied research so as to solve
Environmental problems
 To produce professionals that are able to undertake basic and applied researches
and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
 To design, organize and conduct scientific environmental research, and contribute to
the development of innovative technologies for solving environmental issues
 To produce professionals that will ensure sustainable development in the nation and
to work in different stakeholders
 To enlighten awareness of nature and judicious use of all natural resources for long
term sustenance of life on this planet
OUTCOMES
 Observation and integration of diverse information from variable sources outside of
the classroom
 It helps students to think critically, creatively, resourcefully, and strategically,
including identifying steps needed to reach goals, manage projects, evaluate progress,
and adapt approaches, developing both self reliance, and civic‐mindedness
 Adapting eco-friendly technologies and maintain hygienic conditions
 It focuses on the interaction between human activities, resources, and the environment
 Collaborating across diverse disciplines and practices to identify and create
solutions that conserve and help manage biodiversity for the long term
 Discuss the issues involved in concentrating, storing, transporting energy and
recognize various energy resources
SKILLS
 Environmental Studies embodies formal thought, structural relationships, abstract
models, symbolic languages and deductive reasoning. Students who develop these
skills gain perspective to meet problems squarely, improvise and devise solutions,
and overcome unpredictable circumstances in life
 Identifying solutions to environment and development issues, using planning,
analysis, modeling, and new approaches
 The fieldwork techniques help to study, observe and prepare documents, charts,
PPTs, Models etc.
ACTIVITIES
 Chart preparation and documentation
 Painting on environmental issues
 Models of energy resources, pollution and solid waste management-3R strategy
 Quiz and essay writing competitions
 Skit, JAM and debate

Proposed Syllabus for the 1st and IInd Semesters in B. Tech. 2017

UNIT I – Introduction to Environmental Studies and Natural Resources

Environmental Studies: Definition Scope and its importance, Multidisciplinary nature of
Environmental Studies, Concept of Sustainability and Sustainable development -Natural
Resources: Deforestation: causes and impacts due to mining, dam building on environment,
forests, biodiversity and tribal population. Water resources: use and over exploitation of
surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water (international and inter-
state) Energy resources: renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate
energy sources, growing energy needs, case Studies- Land resources: land degradation, soil
erosion and desertification
UNIT II - Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Ecosystem: Concept, Structure and functions of an ecosystem - Energy flow, Food chains,
Food webs and ecological succession, Forest, Grassland and Aquatic ecosystems(Ponds,
Rivers, Lakes, Streams, Ocean, Estuary). Biodiversity: Introduction, Bio-geographical
classification Biodiversity at global, National and local levels – India as a Megadiversity-
Hot-spots of biodiversity - Threats to biodiversity -Endangered and endemic species of
India – Conservation of biodiversity, Ecosystem and biodiversity services: Ecological,
economic, ethical, aesthetic and information value
UNIT III – Environmental Pollution
Pollution: Air pollution, Water pollution, Noise pollution, Thermal pollution, Soil pollution
Control, Pollution case studies, Nuclear hazards and human health risks, Solid waste
Management: control measures of urban and industrial wastes Remote sensing / GIS:
Introduction, definitions, applications of the remote sensing, . Green technology for
Sustainable development
UNIT IV – Environmental Policies and Practices
Climate change, Global warming, Acid rain, Ozone layer depletion and impacts on human
communities and agriculture. Environmental laws: Wildlife Protection Act – Water
(pollution prevention and control) Act - Forest Conservation Act - Air (pollution prevention
and control) Act. – Environmental Protection Act, International agreements: Montreal and
Kyoto protocols and Convention on Biological Diversity, Nature reserves, tribal populations
and rights, and human wild life conflicts in Indian context, EIA: Introduction, definition of
E.I.A and E.I.S – scope and objectives – Importance of E.I.A in proposed Projects / Industry /
Developmental activity.
UNIT V – Human Communities and the Environment
Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human health and welfare -
Resettlement and Rehabilitation of project affected persons: Case Studies. -Disaster
Management: floods, earthquake, landslides and cyclones -Environmental movements:
Chipko movement, Silent valley, Bishnois of Rajasthan-Environmental ethics: Role of Indian
and other religions and cultures in environmental conservation: Environmental
communication and Public awareness, case studies (C.N.G Vehicles in Delhi)
Field work/Environmental Visit:
Visit to a local area to document environmental assets – river/ forest/ grassland / hill
/mountain: Visit to a local polluted site - Study of local environment - common plants,
insects, birds - Study of simple ecosystems –pond, river, hill slopes etc - Visit to
industries/water treatment plants/effluent treatment plants.
TEXT BOOKS:
1) Anubha Kaushik- CP Kaushik – ‘Perspectives in Environmental Studies’ – V th
Edition Current version – 2016
2) 2. Benny Joseph – ‘Environmental studies’- IInd edition - 2015 – Mc Graw Hill
Education
3) Text book for Environmental Studies-Erach Bharucha for University Grants
Commission
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1) Sharma & Kour – ‘Environmental Pollution and Instrumentation’
2) Dr. M. Chandrasekhar, “A Text book of Environmental Studies”, HI-TECH
publications, 2006
3) Dr. M. Anji Reddy, “A Text book of environmental science and
Technology”, B S Publications, 2008
4) Dr. K. Mukkanti, “A Text book of Environmental Studies”, S.CHAND Company Ltd,
2009.
5) EHILRS and ST, “Text book of Municipal and Rural Sanitation”, M.S Hill, 1998.
6) C. S. Rao, Wiley Eastern Ltd, “Environmental Pollution Control Engineering”,
New Age International Ltd, 2001
7) Dr. M. Anji Reddy, “Introduction to Remote Sensing”, B S Publications,2004.
8) Kurian Joseph and R.Nagendram, “Essentials of environmental studies”,Pearson
Education Pt Ltd, Delhi, 2007.
9) Sharma & Kour “Text book of Environmental pollution”.
10) H.C Perkins “Text book of Air Pollution”.

***********************
 UNIT-I
Introduction to Environmental
Studies and Natural Resources
The word environment is derived from the French word “Environner” means to
encircle or to surround. Thus our environment can be defined as “The physical,
chemical and biological world that surrounds us as well as the complex of social and
cultural conditions affecting an individual or community”
or
“The sum of total conditions which surround man at a given point in space and
time”.
Environmental Studies
This is concerned with the environment and the various problems present in the
environment and these problems can be minimized by creating some changes in the
society.
Need for Environmental Studies
The urgent need to protect the environment, in order to maintain the quality of life, has
now been identified globally. Environmental protection starts by creating awareness
among people so that it becomes a part of their lifestyle.
All the people in the in the rural, slum and urban areas, women and students, teachers in
schools, colleges and universities, planners, decision and policy makers, programme
implementers research and development workers etc. need to be educated about the
environment.

Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies

1) Environmental studies has multiple and multilevel scope. It is multidisciplinary in
nature as various branches of science are related to this subject.
2) It provides the knowledge about ecological systems, causes, effects and relationship
between the components.
3) It provides the necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential
 dangers to the specific plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.
4) The study enables us to understand the cause and the consequences natural and
man- made disasters.

5) The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of
environment.
6) The study exposes the problems of over pollution, health, hygiene etc. and the role
of art, science and technology in eliminating / minimizing the evils from the society.
7) It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to the environmental issues before
deciding an alternative course of action.
8) It teaches to the citizens about the need for sustainable utilization of resources.
9) The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly
skills and technologies to various environmental issues.
10) It helps in social development and self-fulfillment. It helps in the maintenance of life
and health in self-preservation and in the preservation of human race.
11) It helps to understand different food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids.
12) To understand and appreciate how the environment is used for making a living and
for promoting a material culture.
13) In appreciating and enjoying the society and nature.
14) It directs attention towards the problem of environmental pollution, population
explosion and throws light on the methods of solution.
15) It generates concern for the changing environment in a systematic manner for the
future as well as immediate welfare of the mankind.
16) Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction.
17) Environmental studies play a key role that helps to bring change in the life style,
behavior, attitude of the person in order to attain sustainability and stability.
As a summary the main objectives of environmental studies are:
Awareness: To help individuals and social groups acquire an awareness of land
sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.
Knowledge: To help individuals and social groups acquire basic understanding of the
total environment, its associated problems.
Skills: To solve environmental problems
Evaluation ability: To evaluate environmental measures and education programs in
terms of ecological, political, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors.
Participation: To develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding environmental
problems to ensure appropriate action to solve those problems.

Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies

This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues
and citizens and experts in many fields. By studying environmental science, students
may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the
environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of
environmental problems.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs (According to Brundtland commission)
or
Improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of
supporting
system

Factors Affecting Sustainable Society

Nonrenewable Resource
Population
Consumption
Pollution
Conservation
Land Use
Sustainable development urges
1) The maintenance of ecological integrity.

2) The integration of environmental development and care.

3) The satisfaction of basic human needs to all.
4) The application of science, technology and environmental knowledge to
world development.
5) The adaptation of long term view.
6) The acceptance of some economic growth and
7) Concern for inter-generational, inter-group and inter-species equity. The sustainable
development also considers the compatibility between many opposite twin pairs like: Rich &
poor; equity & economics; reaction & anticipation; industry & pollution; conservation &
exploitation; disposing & recycling; penalties & incentives; prevention & curing; accumulation
& reduction
Measures for sustainable development
1. Population stabilization
2. Integrated land use planning
3. Healthy cropland and grassland
4. Woodland and re-vegetation of marginal lands
5. Conservation of biological diversity
6. Control of pollution in water and of air
7. Development of non-polluting renewable energy systems
8. Recycling of waste and residues
9. Ecologically compatible human settlements including slum improvement
10. Environmental education and awareness at all levels
11. Upgrading environmental law
12. New dimensions to national security.

Brundtland Commission is to unite countries to pursue sustainable

development together. It Came in to existence in December 1983
 UNIT – I: Natural Resources
Introduction:
Nature has provided a large number of materials and services that are essential for life
on earth. Thus, natural resources are the raw materials for all human requirements.
Hence, “anything that can be transformed to a form that becomes valuable and useful to
human beings is termed as resource”.

 The natural resources hold greater value in their unmodified form.

 The value of natural resources depends on its availability and demand.

Classification of Natural Resources:

Natural resources can be classified on the basis of the following parameters:

Based on Origin:
1. Biotic Natural Resources: Biotic natural resources are obtained from the biosphere
either in the raw form or through cultivation.
e.g. Fossil fuels, Agricultural products, Fruits, Wax etc.
2. Abiotic Natural Resources: These resources are non-living and are produced from
land, water and minerals.
e.g. Air, Water, Land, Metals such as Pd, V , Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag, Pt, Non-metals such as
Diamond, Sulphur, Bauxite etc.
Based on the degree to which they are developing/processing:
2. Potential Resources:
These include untouched and untapped resources for future use.
e.g. Hydrogen gas

Based on regeneration ability:

1. Renewable Resources:
The resources that can be recycled or replenished quickly by natural ecological cycle.
e.g. Solar radiation, Wind energy, Water, Biomass, Forests, and Soil.
Renewable resources generally refer to living resources such as, fish, crop and forests,
which can renew themselves and they can be used indefinitely. If renewable resources are
consumed at a rate greater than their rate of replacement, their availability will decrease
and the stock will eventually vanish.
2. Non-renewable Resources:
Non-renewable resources are natural resources that cannot be replenished by natural
means.
e.g. Coal, Oil and Natural gas
These resources, once used up, have very little chance of recovery or resynthesize.
Forest Resources:
The word “forest” originated from “fores” meaning a vast stretch of land shielded by
trees. A forest, a biotic community with predominance of trees, is an important
renewable natural resource.

 Forests are one of the precious gifts of nature.

 They restore oxygen in our atmosphere through photosynthesis.
 Forests providing solvents, medicines, fuels, wood and many other products that
are important for human health and comfort.
 Forests also playing vital role in regulating climate, controlling water run-off,
and providing shelter and food for wild animals.
 Forests also have scenic, cultural and historic values that deserve to be protected.

Uses of Forest resources:

Direct Uses:

1. Timber: The timber provided by forests can be utilized for the manufacturing of
furniture, paper, plywood, doors, windows, sports goods etc.

2. Edible products: Forests provide a large number of eatable products such as fruits,
nuts, seeds, spices, masticatories and so on. Forests also provide fodder that is rich in
various vitamins and minerals for animals.

3. Natural habitat: Forests provide a natural habitat (food, medicine etc.) to tribal people
who depend on the plants and trees.

4. Fuel wood and Manure: For the rural population, wood is an important source of
energy for cooking and heating. Forests help to meet the fuel wood requirement of the
rural population. Forests also providing the essential elements such as nitrogen to the soil
and also helps in manure formation.

5. Medicinal plants: The leaves, bark and wood of trees contain hundreds of compounds
that are valuable to the field of medicine. These valuable herbs are also utilized
extensively in treatment using the word-famous practice of Ayurveda.

6. Tourism: Forests increase beauty of landscape and are also opening new avenue for
tourism called ecotourism in India. The tourist hot spots in India includes:
Corbett National Park
(Uttaranchal), Gir National Park
(Gujarat) and Periyar Sanctuary
(Kerala) etc.
Forests also contribute in raising income and thus strengthen a nation’s economy by
activities such as recreation, hunting and fishing.

Indirect Uses:

1. Forests help in minimizing natural hazards.

2. They help in reducing soil erosion and siltation of downstream water bodies.

3. They help in reducing desertification and land degradation.

4. They provide habitat to wild animals and help in maintaining biodiversity.

5. They help in regulating hydrological cycle.

6. Forests also contributing towards decreasing greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Deforestation:
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), in 1992
defines deforestation as, land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas
resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities.

 The clearing of forests across the earth has been occurring on large scale basis
from many centuries.
 Forests are burnt or cut down for various reasons: clearing of land for
agriculture, harvesting of timber, expansion of cities, and many more.
 If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish
within the next 100 years.
 Deforestation causes unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the
majority of plant and animal species on the planet.
 The growing population and rapid industrialization and many related activities
are responsible for forest area exploitation (deforestation).

Causes of Deforestation:
The causes of deforestation are very complex and diverse. Mostly in developing nations,
broad issues of poverty, population explosion, and unequal political power, lack of
opportunities to make a living, landlessness, and inadequate knowledge are the root
causes of deforestation.

The important causes of deforestation are listed below:

1. Destruction of Forest Land for Agriculture: On account of increasing population, large

areas of forests have been turned into agricultural land to meet the growing demands.

2. Expansion of Cities: Owing to the growing population, there is an ever-increasing

demand for providing housing facilities. Large areas of forests are being cleared across
the world in order to provide accommodation to more and more people.

3. Establishment of Industrial Area: Forests provide raw materials for several small and
large- scale industries. Hence, with rapid industrialization across the world, there is an
increasing threat to the forests.
4. Mining: Mining activities promote the deforestation process. Mining leads to direct
forest loss due to the clearing of land to establish projects and also contributes in shifting
the native people. Mining activities lead to irreversible damage to the environment since
they cause soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. Mining on large extent leaves the area
unfit for any future use and destroy the scenic value of the landscape.

5. Shifting Cultivation: Many parts of North America and Western Europe have become
deforested due to unsustainable agriculture like shifting agriculture, livestock rearing,
grazing, crop-plantations etc. In many cases, it has lead farmers to leave the area and search
for other option.

6. Demand for firewood: Tribal people, who depend on forest for fuel wood, are
responsible for large-scale cutting of trees. The United Nation’s Food and Agriculture
Organization estimates that
1.5 billion of the 2.0 billion people worldwide who rely on fuel wood for cooking and
heating are over cutting forests.

7. Forest Fires: Rainforests are increasingly susceptible to forest fires. Millions of acres of
forests were burnt as fires swept through Indonesia, Brazil, Colombia, Central America,
Florida, and other places.

8. Construction of Dams, Canals, and Highways: Development activities such as

construction of dams, bridges, and highways have caused large-scale cutting of trees.
Construction of dams also causes submergence of land containing forests which can lead
to loss of several endangered species of flora and fauna.

Effects of Deforestation:
Large-scale destruction of forests leads to a number of adverse environmental effects.

1. Loss of natural habitat of wild animals and plants: Loss of flora and fauna has
resulted in loss of biodiversity leading to ecological imbalance. As a result of
deforestation, a large number of plant and animal species are slowly becoming extinct.

2. Increased frequency of floods: Environment is threatened by frequent extreme floods

due to deforestation. For example, In Nepal and India, due to deforestation in the foothills
of the Himalayas has led to terrible flooding of the river Ganges.
3. Land Degradation: Due to the deforestation large surface of the forest land area is
exposed to the sun light; as a result of this, the moisture content in the soil decrease
drastically causing it to become dry and cracked.

4. Change in Climatic Conditions: The climate of a region depends upon the rainfall and
temperature patterns. Forests are important sinks for atmospheric CO2. The most recent
survey on deforestation and greenhouse gas emission reports that deforestation may
account for 10% of current greenhouse gas emissions.

5. Change in Water cycle and reduce rainfall: Forests bring rains due to high rate of
transpiration and precipitation. In the absence of forests, rainfall declines considerably.
Less rainfall results into the loss of fertile land owing to less natural vegetation growth.

6. Siltation of rivers and lakes: In the absence of forest trees, the soil particles are eroded
by rains during run-offs. This eventually leads to the deposition of soil sediments in lakes
and ponds.

7. Loss of forests products and revenue: Deforestation leads to loss of forests products and
hence causes a loss in revenue of government.

8. Socio-economic Issues: Native people may be forced to leave the place and hence, are
uprooted from their culture and traditions. This causes several socio-economic problems
in the long run.

Control of Deforestation:
The government has launched joint forest management and social forestry schemes to
conserve forests. The present forest policy of India recognizes the need of balanced and
complimentary land used for checking and scientific exploitation of forest products for
commercial use. The main objectives of forest policy are:

 Conservation of biological diversity

 Checking soil erosion and increasing forest areas.
 Creating mass awareness on importance of forests

The important measures that are helpful in controlling deforestation are as follows:

 Mining activities should be prohibited in areas declared as protected forests.

 Cutting of trees should be followed by massive plantation.
  The environmental laws and legal provisions should be strictly enforced.
 Public awareness regarding medicinal, economic and environmental
significance of forests should be created.
 Local people should be educated about the effects of deforestation and they
should be taught to participate actively in forest conservation programs.

Afforestation:
It means planting of trees. Government have launched several afforestation programs
throughout the country as a part of forest conservation policy.

Social forestry: It seeks to use public as well as waste land to grow firewood, fodder and
small timber to meet the daily requirement s of rural people.

Agroforestry: Encourages the use of the same land for farming, forestry and animal
husbandry.

Urban forestry: It includes planting of trees for aesthetic purposes in urban areas. Flower
trees and fruit trees are planted on roadside and also in private compounds.

Chipko Movement: The chipko movement is started in Tehri Garhwal of Uttar Pradesh
and was initiated by Sri Sundarlal bahuguna in 1973 in which women came forward
successfully checked felling of trees by contractors. It was started in Gopeswar town of
Chamoli district. The women saved the trees from cutting by hugging them. The public
agitation that followed against the construction of a hydroelectric project in silent valley
are the result of public awareness towards preservation of nature.

Water Resources
Water is the source of life on the earth. It is a major constituent of the hydrosphere that
consists of oceans, seas, rivers, streams, lakes, glaciers, reservoirs polar ice caps & shallow
ground water table that inter flow with the surface water. At about 70% of the earth’s
crust consists of water and 30% of it is the land. Plants and animals have 60 to 65 % of
water in their bodies. It is the monoxide of hydrogen. It has hydrogen-bonding init.

Features of Water
1) It exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature from 0° to 100°C.
 2) It has the highest specific rate.
3) It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients
4) It has a high latent heat of vaporization
5) It has an anomalous expansion behavior.

Hydrological Cycle
It is continuous process going on day and night from the ocean surface, ground surface,
inland waters, and plant & animal surfaces. There are three steps in water cycle
Evaporation, Condensation and Precipitation

In the atmosphere water from the water sources evaporates in gaseous or droplet form
that float in the form of clouds which in turn comes back to the earth in the form of rain
which is also called precipitation. Some of the precipitations accumulate in the pond, lake,
river and some taken by the plants, some absorbed by the soil while the remaining
collected back into the oceans as the surface runoff.
 Importance of Water
Domestic purposes
Industrial purposes
Agricultural purposes

Water is used for various purposes in our daily life. One can survive without food for few weeks but
cannot more than a few days without water. Without it neither the individual nor the community
can survive.

Man needs water not only for drinking but also for bathing, washing, heating, and
agriculture, livestock, fishing, swimming, navigation, recreation and recreation purposes.
Water is an important prerequisite for the development.
Properties of Water
1. Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless
and order less liquid, nearly colorless / very light blue.
2. It is an important solvent and is known as Universal Solvent for its ability to
dissolve in many substances. .
3. Water has a very high specific heat capacity
4. Water also has a high heat of vaporization, which means that it can take a lot of heat
without its temperature raising much.
5. Water also has a high level of surface tension. This means that the molecules on the
surface of the water are not surrounded by similar molecules on all sides, so they're
being pulled only by cohesion from other molecules deep inside
6. Water molecules stay close to each other (cohesion), due to the collective action of
hydrogen bonds between water molecules
7. Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature (A polar
molecule has a net dipole as a result of the opposing charges (i.e. having partial
positive and partial negative charges

Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water

Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a river, lake, wetland, or
ocean. Water that is available in the deeper layers of the earth is known as Groundwater
The increasing shortage and unreliable canal supplies have induced farmers to use more
and more groundwater to irrigate their crops. At present, 51 billion cubic metres of
groundwater is extracted annually with the help of 800,000 tube-wells.

Use of Surface and Ground Water

Consumptive use: In such uses, water is completely utilized and cannot be
reused. Ex: Domestic, industrial and irrigation
Non-consumptive use: In such uses, water is not completely utilized and is
reused Ex: Hydropower plant
The rapid increase in population and industrial growth led to severe demand on water
resources. After using all available surface water resources to the maximum, human
beings began using groundwater to meet their needs
Impacts on Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water
The over utilization of underground and surface water has the potential to alter,
sometimes irreversibly, the integrity of freshwater ecosystems. Some of the major
impacts are summarized below
 Loss of integrity of freshwater ecosystems
 Human activities for infrastructure development like creation of dams, land
conversion, etc. are responsible for this loss of integrity of freshwater ecosystems.
Water quality and quantity, fisheries, habitats, etc. are at risk due to this loss of
integrity.
 Risk to ecosystem functions
Population and consumption growth increases water abstraction and acquisition of
cultivated land. Virtually all ecosystem functions including habitat, production and
regulation functions are at risk.

 Depletion of living resources and biodiversity

Overharvesting and exploitation causes groundwater depletion, collapse of
fisheries. Production of food, quality and quantity of water and supply of water
gets badly affected by these depletions of living resources and biodiversity.
 Pollution of water bodies
Release of pollutants to land, air or water alters chemistry and ecology of water
bodies. Greenhouse gas emissions produce significant changes in runoff and rainfall
patterns. Because of water pollution, water supply, habitat, water quality, food
production, climate change, etc. are at risk.
 Subsidence
The increased extraction of groundwater far in excess of the natural recharge led to
decreased groundwater level. The erratic and inadequate rainfall caused reduction in
storage of water in reservoirs. This also led to decrease of groundwater.
 Over-utilization of groundwater lads to decrease in water level thereby causing
earthquake, landslides and famine
 Water Logging
 Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged
when the water table of the ground water is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated
activity, like agriculture.
Water Crisis / Disputes

Water crisis arises due to unavailability of water at required place and at the required
time Shortage of water due to excess consumption Pollution of water and its wastage.

Some international River Water Disputes

River Countries involved
Internationa
l
Ganga India, Bangladesh and Nepal
Brahmaputra India and Bangladesh
Han South Korea and North Korea
Colorado US and Mexico
Euphrates Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq
and Iran
National
Godavari Maharashtra and Andhra
pradesh
Krishna Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Cauvery Karnataka and Tamil nadu
SYL canal Punjab and Haryana

Some major water conflicts are

Water Conflict in the Middle East
Three river basins, namely the Jordan, the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile are the shared
water resources of the Middle East countries. Ethiopia controls the headwaters of 80% of
Nile’s flow and plans to increase it. Sudan too is trying to divert more water. This would
badly affect the Egypt, which is a desert, except for a thin strip of irrigated cropland along
the river Nile and its delta.
The population of Egypt is likely to double in the next 20 years, thereby increasing its
water crisis. Likewise there was a fierce battle for water between Sudan Syria and Israel
for the Jordan River water share.
Turkey has abundant water and plans to build 22 dams on the Tigris-Euphrates for
hydroelectric power generation. But it would drastically reduce the flow of water to Syria
and Iraq. Turkey dreams to become the region’s water super power. It plans to sell water
to Kuwait, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Probably, the next war in the Middle East
would be fought over water and not oil.

The Indus Water Treaty

The Indus one of the mightiest rivers is dying a slow death due to dams and barrages that
have been built higher up on the river. In 1960 Indus Water Treaty was established which
stated that Jhelum and Chenab were allotted to Pakistan while Sutlej Beas and Ravi to
India. India being a riparian state has the right to construct barrages across all these rivers
in the Indian Territory however the treaty requires that the three rivers allocated to
Pakistan may be used for non- consumptive purposes by India i.e without changing the
flow and its quality.

With improving political relations between these two countries it is desirable to work out
techno economic details and go for an integrated development of the river basin in a

sustainable manner. Krishna river dispute

It originates in Western Ghats of Mahabhaleswar it flows towards Karnataka and then
to Andhra pradesh. Karnataka people started constructing Almatti dam on the river this
restricts the source of water supply towards Andhra Pradesh. The reason for the dispute
is raising height of dam from 519m to 524m

Godavari river dispute

It is the dispute between two states Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Maharashtra
people started constructing Babhali barrage; this makes the water flows back from
Pochampad dam or sriramsagar project (in Andhra Pradesh) to Babhali barrage, which
reduces the water supply to Andhra Pradesh.

Cauvery river dispute

It is the boon of contention between Tamil nadu and Karnataka and the fighting is
almost hundred years old Tamil nadu occupying the downstream region of river wants
water use regulated in the upstream where the upstream state Karnataka refuse to do
so and claims its primacy over the river as upstream user. The river water is almost fully
utilized and both the states have increasing the demands of agriculture and industry
.The consumption is more in Karnataka than in Tamil nadu as the catchment area is
rocky this problem can be solved by optimum use of water, better rationing, rational
 sharing of water and pricing of water.

SYL canal dispute

It is worth mentioning that SYL has been remaining key river-water dispute between
Punjab and Haryana since 1982. Indian government has been making persistent efforts to
loot more water of Punjab through this canal. Such efforts had forced Sikh youth to revolt
against India violently as Punjab has no surplus water to share with neighborhood state
and there is already huge shortage of water in the state.
It is the dispute between the two states Haryana and Punjab it is Sutlej Yamuna link
Yamuna basin covers Haryana where as Sutlej Ravi Beas covers Punjab, Punjab being a
riparian state can share the water resources but Haryana faced acute shortage of water
after it is converted into state in the year 1967.
 ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy can be defined as the ability or capacity to do the work. Its units are Ergs, Calories,
Joules and British Thermal Unit (BTU).

Major forms of Energy:

 Mechanical Energy
 Electrical Energy
 Chemical Energy
 Nuclear Energy
 Thermal Energy

Energy resources can be classified as:

 Depending upon utility energy resources are classified as:

Renewable Energy Resources Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Energy derived either directly or indirectly Energy derived from Fossil fuels
from the sun
Solar (0.1%) Coal (App 40% of world electricity)
Wind (0.1%) Oil (Petroleum) (32 – 50%)
Biomass (2.9%) Natural Gas (23%)
Biofuel (2.2%)

Energy derived from gravity Energy derived from the fission of atoms

Tidal (0.1%) Nuclear (Uranium) (8.1%)

Hydropower (2.7%)

Energy from interior of earth

Geothermal (0.3%)
Renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy is generally defined as “Energy that comes from resources which are
naturally replenished on a human time-scale”

 Solar Energy

 Wind Energy

 Hydropower Energy
These resources have the ability to
 Tidal Energy reappear or replenish themselves by
recycling, reproduction or replacement.
 Geothermal Energy

 Biomass Energy

 Biofuel Energy

Solar Energy:
 The sun is a source of enormous energy. It is due to the nuclear fusion reactions
that take part in it. The energy from the sun is in the form of radiations.
 Traditionally we have been using solar energy for drying cloths and food grains,
preservation of eatables and for obtaining salt from seawater.
 Solar cells or Photovoltaic Cells:
These are the devices that directly
convert incident solar radiation to
 electrical current. It works on the principal of photovoltaic effect – “When light falls
on certain materials like silicon, the electrons get excited and are collected by
another metal and passed through wires in the form a stream that constitutes
electricity or electrical energy”.
 Photovoltaic cell converts sun energy into electrical energy, this effect is known as
photovoltaic effect.
Solar cell producing DC current and it is converted to an AC current by using inverter.
 A variety of solar active collectors provide a broad range of application, namely:
o Solar water Heater
o Solar Cooker
o Solar Oven
o Solar green houses
o Solar ponds
o Solar furnaces
 Solar Pond: It is one of the promising technology in the solar energy utilization. It
depends on the principle that water evaporates on heating. When the pond water
gets heated up, the hot water from the pond rises to the top of the pond and
evaporates.

1. Solar pond consists of three zones. Upper convective zone having low
concentration of salt.
2. Non-convective zone or gradient zone that acts as an insulator, permitting sunlight
to reach the bottom zone but prevents the escape of heat from the bottom zone.
3. The bottom zone or lower convective zone is very hot (70 – 900 C) and very salty
and stores solar energy in the form of heat. It is also called as the Storage zone.
 Solar ponds are very much useful to get large amount of slat from sea water when
compared to traditional solar evaporation technique.
 Solar ponds are also useful to supply bulk amount of hot or boiled water to the
reactors constructed in the power plants and industries.
Wind Energy:
Wind (moving Air), has kinetic energy by virtue of the movement of large masses of air
caused by differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun.

 Wind energy can be tapped (Harvested) with the help of wind-mills or wind-
turbines.
 Wind turbines are used either singly or in clusters. Clusters of wind turbines are
called ‘wind farms’.

Types of wind turbines:

 The Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) representing most of the traditional
wind turbines. It has rotor blades that seems to be propeller spinning on the
 horizontal axis. The main rotor, shaft, gear box and electrical generator are placed
at the top of the tower.

 The Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) have the main rotor and shaft arranged
vertically. The wind turbine need not to be pointed into the wind. It is
advantageous in places where the wind direction and speed is highly variable. The
generator and the other major machineries can be conveniently placed near the
ground.

Parts and functions of a wind turbine:

 Rotor blades: Large fan blades are linked to the hub. Force of wind flow moves
the blades to rotate and which is transformed to energy.
 Shaft: Shaft is joined to the center of the rotor. Breaks are applied to control the
speed of rotation of fan blades.
 Gearbox: If the speed of the shaft is very slow, a gearbox is connected to the shaft
to increase the output speed.
 Generator: The high-speed output shaft from the gearbox is coupled to the
generator that produces electricity.
Merits and demerits of wind energy:

Merits:

 Non-polluting and environmental friendly

 Power generation is cheaper.
 It is an important renewable and sustainable source of energy, available at free of
cost.
 It can be made available easily in many onshore, offshore and remote areas.

Demerits:

 It has low energy density

 It is unsteady, irregular and sometimes dangerous.
 Spinning and whistling may cause irritation
 If they are located at the migratory routes of the birds they kill the migratory birds.
 Installation and maintenance of wind-mills is problematic.

Hydropower Energy:
It is the energy from the moving or flowing waters. Dams are constructed to store the
river water and to led them fall on the turbines so as to run them which in turn generates
electricity.

 Most of the dams are multipurpose dams. They control floods, supply water for
irrigation and drinking, navigation, aquaculture and to generate electricity.
 Hydropower that provides about 30% of the world’s electricity plays a significant
role in the world’s supply of energy. Some major dams constructed in various
parts of the world are Niagara dam, Churchill dam, Grand Coulee dam, Nagarjuna
sagar dam, Hirakud dam etc.

Merits:

 It is the cheapest and more versatile source of energy.

 It is not only clean but non-polluting source of energy.
 Most of the hydroelectric power projects act as the multipurpose dams.

Demerits:
  The initial capital investment is very high.
 High rate of siltation
 Deforestation
 Displacement of people and their rehabilitation is problematic.

Tidal Energy:
The gravitational pull of the sun and the moon on the rotation of the earth results
in tides. The tidal movement of water represents a great deal of energy. The
principle behind generation of electric energy from tides depends on the same
principle as that of the hydropower energy. The high tide and the low tide refer to
the rise and fall of water in the oceans. There are only few sites in the world where
tidal energy can be suitably harnessed.

This tidal electricity generation works

as the tide comes in and again when it
goes out. The turbines are driven by the
power

 The first tidal power station is the Rance Tidal Power Station Plant built
over a period of 6 years from 1960 to 1966 at La Rance, France. It has 240
MW installed capacity.
 Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station is the world's largest tidal power
installation in the South Korea, with a total power output capacity of 254
MW.
  India has a potential of 8,000 MW of tidal energy. This includes about 7,000 MW
in the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat, 1,200 MW in the Gulf of Kutch and 100 MW in
the Gangetic delta in the Sunderbans region of West Bengal.

Merits:

 Once power plant is built, tidal power is free.

 It produces electricity reliably.
 Tides are totally predictable.
 Not expensive to maintain.
Demerits:
 A barrage across the estuary is very expensive.
 It provides power for around 10 hours each day, when tide is moving in or
out.

Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is the stored heat inside earth’s crust. The temperature increases as one
goes inside the earth. Heated rocks inside the earth’s crust hot enough to boil the water. When
holes are drilled, natural ground water may be present in the hot rocks or water can be forced
down to the hot rocks through an “injection well” produce steam, which comes-up through
“recovery well” and can able to turn turbines to drive electrical generator.

Advantages:

 Does not produce any Pollution and Green House Gases (GHGs).

 The power station do not cover mush area, so there is not much impact on the
environment.
  No fuel is needed.

 Once power station is built, the energy is almost free.

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to find prospective places.

 Toxic gases and mineral may come out from the underground along with steam.

Biomass Energy:
 Biomass is the organic matter produced by the plants or animals that include wood, Crop
residues, cattle dung, manure, sewage, agricultural wastes etc. In many ways biomass can
be considered as a form of stored solar energy. The energy of the sun is 'captured' through
the process of photosynthesis in growing plants. Biomass is sometimes burned as fuel for
cooking and to produce electricity and heat. This is called Bio-fuel. Biomass used as fuel
often consists of underutilized types, like chaff and animal waste. This is often considered
a type of alternative energy, although it is a polluting one

.
 Paradoxically, in some industrialized countries like Germany, food is
cheaper than fuel compared by price per joule. Central heating units supplied
by food grade wheat or maize are available. Biomass is also the dried organic
mass of an ecosystem.
 Fermentation of molasses produces ethanol which can be used as a
potential substitute for petrol / diesel. Pyrolysis of wood yields methanol
that can be used as
a gasoline additive.

Anaerobic digestion of manure or cattle dung yields biogas.

  Biogas consists of 60% of methane and 40% of CO2.it can be produced by
KVIC Model, Janata Model, Ganesh Model, Denabandu Model and Pragati
Model. KVIC Model consists of an inlet tank, outlet tank, digester and
gasholder.
 A slurry of waste organic matter is fed to the inlet tank from there it enters
the digester and under goes anaerobic decomposition at a temperature of
20 –400 C between a pH of 7 to 7.4.the gas produced gets collected in the
gas holder from there it is pumped to the houses and to the industries
through pipes.
Advantages:

 It is renewable – people and animals will always produce waste

 It is environmentally friendly and efficient
 It is more reliable generator of electricity than energy from the wind or the sun.
 It reduces the level of greenhouse gases that landfill produces
 When landfill gases are collected the rubbish dump smells better.
 Plants near the dump also grow better.

Disadvantages:

 As the community becomes more environmentally aware (reducing the amount

of waste they create through recycling), the amount of available landfill will be
reduced.
 Much greater quantities of landfill gases are required to create electricity
(compared to fossil fuels)
 Biomass energy is more expensive to produce because it is still being fully
developed.

Non-renewable Energy Resources:

Coal:
 It is the non-renewable, commercial or conventional source of energy.
  Coal is a black or brown-black nonmetallic solid formed by the alternation of
fossilized remains of organic plant matter.
 It chiefly consists of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen and varying amount
of moisture and other non-combustible minerals.

 Coal is the first fossil fuel to be exploited on a large scale, so industrial revolution
enabled coal to be mined at even greater depths.

Origin of Coal:

Coal was formed from the debris of giant tree ferns and other vegetation that grow in
coastal and inland swamps and bogs about 300 million years ago. When plants die the
shallow layers of
sediments and water cover them. Under these conditions the decay of vegetation took place
anaerobically and extremely slowly. They are subjected to high pressure, stemming not only form
the weight of the material above them, but also from the movement of the earth’s crust. Molten
igneous rocks also heated them. Under high temperature and pressure the fossilized remains were
subjected to physical and chemical alterations that ultimately lead to the origin of coal.

Classification of Coal:

Ranks of coal Carbon Oxyge Volatil Moistur Heating value

n e e (Kcal kg-1)
matter
Lignite 60-70 18 45 35 5500-7000
Sub 75-83 15 40 17 7000-8000
bituminous
Bituminous 78-90 10 20 6 8000-8500
 Anthracite 92-98 3 5 1 8500-8900

 Lignite represents an early stage of transformation of vegetation into coal. It is

the lowest form of coal. It is brown in color. Hence it is called as Brown Coal.
 Sub bituminous possess large ash and volatile matter therefore burns with dense
smoke. It rapidly deteriorates on exposure to air.

 Bituminous has a wide spread of geological distribution. it is also the most

extensively used coal. Most power plants employ Bituminous coal. It is also called
Soft Coal.
 Anthracite, the highest ranking coal. It is hard and dense in nature. It is called as
Hard or Metamorphic Coal. It has the highest energy content of all the coals and
is used for space heating and generating electricity.

Oil or Petroleum:
Petroleum, from Greek word means rock oil, refers to fluid fossil hydrocarbons that are
available as fuel either in the form of oil or natural gas. Petroleum freed of natural gas is
referred to as crude oil. Crude oil is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons both aliphatic
and aromatic.

Origin:

The formation of petroleum began with the death and subsequent deposition of organic
matter in the shallow marine environment. For this region the major oil bearing regions
are located in the coastal environment. In a calm, shallow sea, dead plants and animals
fell to the bottom and were covered by silt. Under anaerobic conditions microbes transfer
it into methane and an insoluble, tar like residue called Kerogen. Kerogen at the depth of
1500-4500 m and a temperature range of 60- 1500c gets thermally transformed into a
mixture of hydrocarbons.
 The most important fraction of petroleum from a commercial viewpoint ranges
from C5- C10.

 Crude oil is refined to get desired products. Crude oil on fractional distillation
yields gasoline, kerosene, diesel, lubricants, asphalt, fuel gas etc..
Advantages:

 It is relatively cheap to extract and transport.

 It requires little processing to produce desired products.
 It has relatively high net and useful yield.

Natural Gas:
It consists of methane and small quantities of ethane and propane. In fact it consists of
95% of CH4, the remaining being ethane and propane. Natural gas occurs deep in the
earth’s crust alone or along with oil above petroleum deposits. Gas fields have been found
in Tripura, Jaisalmar, offshore of Bombay and in the Krishna –Godavari delta.

Uses:

 It is used as domestic and industrial fuel.

 It is used as a source of hydrogen for the fertilizer industry.
 It is used as a source of carbon for the tire industry.

Advantages:

 It is a complete fuel in itself.

 It has a high calorific value of about 55 KJ /g.
 It can be easily supplied to the homes and to the industries through pipes from the
wells.
Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear power is generated using Uranium metal, which is mined in various parts of the
world. The first large-scale nuclear power station opened at Calder Hall in Cambria,
England in 1956. Some military ships and submarines have nuclear power plants for
engines.

 Nuclear energy can be tapped with the help of nuclear reactions. There are two
nuclear reactions.
 Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple nuclei join
together to form a heavier nucleus.

 It is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy depending on the masses

of the nuclei involved.
 Nuclear Fission: A reaction in which an atomic nucleus of a radioactive element
splits by bombardment from an external source (neutron), with simultaneous
release of large amounts of energy, used for electric power generation.
Working process of Nuclear Power Plant:

 Nuclear fuels are obtained through the mining

and refining of uranium ore.
 Uranium is naturally found within the Earth's
core.
 Miners gather, refine, and purify uranium.
 The uranium is brought together and
compounded into rods.
 The rods are then submerged into tanks of
water.
 When it reaches critical mass, uranium begins to break down and release energy this is
known as "fission."
 The heated water then creates pressure and this runs turbines that generate the electricity
we use every day.
 It doesn't pollute the environment.

Types of Nuclear Reactors:

 Light Water Reactor, Heavy Water Reactor and Boiling Water Reactor
 Gas Cooled Reactor and Pressurized Water Reactor.
 Advantages:

 Readily available technology

 Generates high amount of electricity from very small use of nuclear fuel.

 Nuclear waste may be convert into fuel.

Disadvantages:

 Requires huge amount water supply.

 High Installation coast due to radiation containment and procedure.

 High Known and unknown risks.

LAND RESOURCES

Introduction:

Land is a major constituent of the lithosphere and is one of the main components of
natural environment besides air, water and plants. This resource helps mankind in
several ways. It forms about one fifth of earth surface and covers 13,393 million hectares.

 Both natural and manmade activities depends on the space for their location and
development.
 36.6% of land is consists of factories, industries, human settlements, ice caps,
mountains, glaciers.
 30.0% of land is covered with forests,
 22% with pastures and meadows.
 11% is fit for cultivation.
Soil:
The surface layer of the land is called soil. The word “soil” has been derived from the Latin
word “Solum” meaning upper crust of the earth that is differentiated into various horizons
to support plant life.
 It a dynamic layer of the earth’s crust that keeps on
 changing and developing.

 The main components of the soil are:

 Characteristics of the soil:

 Texture,
 Structure,
 Organic Matter,
 Permeability,
 Topography,
 Ground Cover.
 Colour and pH value (optimum pH value is in between 5.5 to 7.0)
Functions of soil:
 It provides mechanical support to the flora.
 Its Porosity helps in water holding and to supply it to the plants.
 Its ion exchange capacity helps in providing mineral nutrients to the plants.
 Soil micro flora helps in decomposition and mineralization of the organic matter
which results in recycling back the nutrients to the soil.

Land degradation:
Land degradation refers to deterioration or loss of fertility or productive capacity of the
soil. Factors affecting the land degradation are: Deforestation, Soil erosion, Salination,
Water Logging, Shifting Cultivation, Urbanization, Industrialization, Land Slides and
Soil Pollution
 Land desertification:
It is the slow process of land degradation it is like a skin disease patches forms in one
area they erupted separately and finally joins together. E.g. Thar Desert in India

 If the productivity in arid and semiarid region falls to 10% or more than 10% it
results in desertification. It is of three types

a) Moderate desertification falls 10% to 25%

b) Severe desertification falls to 25% to 50%

c) Very severe desertification falls more than 50%

d) It refers to the loss of fertile top layer of the soil by moving air or water. Removing of top most
layer of soil, or wearing of soil components and leaf litter results in soil erosion.

Factors effecting soil erosion are: Slope of the ground, Soil type, Vegetative cover,
Distribution, intensity and amount of rainfall along with soil mismanagement.

Types of erosion:
Natural erosion: It is a slow process .It helps in maintaining balance between erosion and
renewal

Accelerated erosion: It is a rapid process. It occurs with interference of man.

E.g. Over grazing, deforestation soil

mismanagement. Agents of erosion: There are two

types of agents

 Climatic agents E.g. Wind and water

 Biotic agents E.g. Over grazing deforestation

Water Erosion: If the erosion is caused by water it is called as “Water Erosion”.

 It can be of four ways. They are: Sheet, Rill, Gully and Riparian Erosions.
 Sheet Erosion: A thin covering of the soil is removed uniformly from all over
without leaving any mark behind. The evidence of such a type of erosion can be
seen in the heavy quantity of silt that deposits elsewhere.
 Rill Erosion: The runoff water moves rapidly over the soil surface running well-
defined finger shaped groove-like structures.
  Gully Erosion: Several rills converge towards the slope, which forms together
wider channels of water known as gullies. These gullies may become deeper and
wider due to further rains.
 Riparian Erosion: The surface current of fast running rivers cuts the margins of the
banks, when most of the sol from beneath is cut away the top soil of the river banks,
falls into the river with a big splash.

Wind Erosion: If the wind erodes the soil it is called as “Wind Erosion”
Types of Wind Erosion:

 Depending upon movement of soil components wind erosion is of following types:

 Saltation erosion: the soil particles having the size of 1 to 5mm these particles
move up in vertical direction.
 Suspension erosion: soil particles being very light (< 1mm) suspends in the
air kick or collide with each other and spreads in different direction.
 Surface creep erosion: the soil particles of 5 to 10 mm creeps on the surface.
Factors Effecting Wind Erosion:

 Natural Factors: Heavy rains on weak soil, Vegetation depleted by drought, Steep
soil.
 Sudden Climate Changes: Rainfall, Drought, Changing winds
 Human induced Factors: Deforestation, Intensive farming, House and Road
construction.

Soil Conservation:

 Biological Methods:
o Agronomic Practices:
 Contour farming
 Mulching
 Crop rotation
 Strip farming and
 Dry farming
 Agrostological methods which includes lay farming and retiring the
land to grass.
 Mechanical Methods:
o Basin listing and Contour terracing which may be Channel, Bench, and
 Broad based ridge terrace.
 Miscellaneous Methods:
o Gully control,
o Afforestation and
o Stream bank control.

INDIVIDUAL ROLE IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURECS

 We should try to understand and cooperate with the nature.

 We should work with the rest of the nature to sustain integrity.
 Locally available renewable resources should be used judiciously.
 Every species has a right to live or at least to survive in the nature.
 Selecting good qualities of detergents.
 Checking for leaks in taps of all rooms.
 Good ventilation.
 Solar water heaters or cookers should be used.
 Usage of two wheelers should be restricted for short distances