Session 3 Unt 1 & 2

• UNIT I Background to Research–Research paradigms Contributions of research to

theory and practice–Research Ethics–Literature Review–Identifying, accessing and
managing sources of information and scholarly literature– Academic writing and
referencing–Steps in literature review development.

• UNIT II Qualitative Methods– The nature and types of qualitative research–Data

collection methods–primary and secondary sources–Types of data analysis
methods–Writing up qualitative research.

Learning Objectives

• Academic writing and referencing

• Qualitative Methods

• The nature and types of qualitative research

1. Academic writing and referencing

• Literature Review
• It is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished
work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the
researcher.

• Reason for the literature survey

• To ensure that no important variable that has been found repeatedly to have had an
impact on the problem is ignored.

How do you document the sources by including citations to the literature?

• Plagiarism means to represent someone else’s ideas and writings as if they were
your own
 – Using someone else’s ideas

– Copying someone else’s words directly or changing just a few words

• Plagiarism has serious consequences

– Failing a class

– Being dismissed from school

– Losing a job

– You must learn to always give proper credit to your sources

In-text references

– Use only the last names of authors, listed in the order they appear in the
article

– Include the year of the publication

– If you use a direct quote from the source, include the original page number
of the quote as part of the in-text reference

Example - see the HRS style for more specific instructions

End-of-text references

– Start new page titled “References”

– List references alphabetically by the last names of the first authors

– Include all the references mentioned in the paper and only the references
mentioned in the paper

– Use a hanging indent form for each reference

– Double space the text in the references list

For example: see the HRS style for more specific instructions
 Examples of critical review questions

 What is the main topic under review?

 What are the results?

 What methodology has the author (s) used? Is it appropriate?

 What are the main issues raised by the author?

 To what extent do the findings echo existing studies?

 What questions are raised?

 Is the article fair/biased?

 How does the article relate to your own views?

 Does the article display a contemporary view or are the findings/sources somewhat
dated?

 What are your own conclusions about the literature?

 How / Why record the literature?

 Make a note of each source from the outset

 Ideally enter full reference (Referencing style) and comments in word

 Don’t leave it until two weeks prior to submission – difficult to find sources!

Writing up the Literature Review:

• The documentation of the relevant studies citing the author and the year of the
study. Documentation is important to convince the reader that,

• The researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the
preliminary home work
• The theoretical framework will be structured on work already done

Introduction:

• define the topic, and provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature

• establish the writer's reasons (point of view) for reviewing the literature

• explain the organisation of the review (logical sequence)

• state what the literature is and is not included (scope)

Middle (Body):

• group the literature according to common themes

• provide insights into relationship between central topic and a larger area (i.e.
discipline)
• proceed from the general, wider view of the research under review to the specific
problem

Conclusion:

• summarise major contributions of the current literature

• summarise the reviewed “state of the art” literature

• point out major flaws or summarise knowledge gaps in current research

• outline issues relevant to future study

Dos for Literature Review

1. Provide your perspectives on the critical knowledge, ideas and concepts that have
been established on the Research Topic

2. Include a discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of existing knowledge on the

Research Topic

3. Highlight the current debate and controversies surrounding the Research Topic

4. Discuss the links between your Research Problem and the larger body of knowledge
(BOK)

Don’ts for Literature Review

1. It should NOT be just a descriptive list of materials available on the research topic

2. It should NOT be merely a set of summaries about the research topic

3. It should NOT be simply a linear presentation of paragraphs on related works of

authors
4. It should NOT be a compilation of other researchers’ views about the topic, but
YOUR VIEWS

Writing Strategies

1. Find a sharp focus for the literature review

2. Organize the literature review (either chronological, thematic or methodological)

3. Prepare an outline of various sections (usually not more than ten sections)

4. Construct a logical flow of sections that tell an interesting story

5. Begin composition of sections early (do not get trapped in a “reading syndrome”,
and not write a word at all)

6. Revise, revise, revise

Referencing styles

• A referencing style is a set of rules on how to acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and
works of others in a particular way. Referencing is a crucial part of successful
academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity in your
assignments and research.

• APA style is the most common referencing style, but different schools, departments,
and lecturers may have their own requirements.

• APA style is commonly used in Education, Business, and some Social Sciences and
Humanities disciplines.
• MLA style (The Modern Language Association) is often used in English and Media
Studies.

• Oxford style is often used in History, Philosophy, and Classics.

• Harvard and Chicago styles are used by some individual disciplines.

• For Example: APA style (American Psychological Association) used for references in
bibliography page is explained in next slide:

What are the different kinds of research studies?

• Remember: Research is a process of steps that researchers use to collect and

analyze information to increase our knowledge about a topic or issue
 – Quantitative research studies emphasize numeric data and statistical
analyses to explain variables

– Qualitative research studies emphasize text data and thematic analyses to

explore a phenomenon

- Combined research studies includes both quantitative and qualitative

research to understand a topic

1. Nature of quantitative research studies

• Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It
can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal
relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

– Ask specific, narrow questions

– Explain different variables or factors (specific concepts)

– Collect quantifiable data from participants

– Analyze these numbers using statistics and graphs (mathematical procedures)

– Conduct the inquiry in an unbiased, objective manner

How do you identify quantitative research studies?

• Words that indicate a quantitative study:

– Experiment

– Correlation

– Survey

• Words that indicate numeric data:

– Variables
 – Factors

– Measures

– Questionnaire

– Survey instruments

• Words that indicate mathematical analysis:

– Statistics

– Differences

– Comparisons

– Associations

– Statistically significant

2. What is Qualitative Research ?

• Qualitative research relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand

observation, interviews, questionnaires (on which participants write descriptively),
focus groups, participant-observation, recordings made in natural settings,
documents, case studies, and artifacts. The data are generally non numerical.

• Phenomenology is a philosophy of experience. For phenomenology the ultimate

source of all meaning and value is the lived experience of human beings.

• Phenomenon: a fact or an event in nature or society, especially one that is not fully
understood.

• Anthropology is the study of the origin and development of human societies and
cultures. Culture is the learned behavior of people, including their languages, belief
systems, social structures, institutions, and material goods.

Qualitative Research
• Qualitative methods include narrative, ethnography, grounded theory, Case study,
and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative research methods have
been used in sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, social work, and
educational research. Qualitative researchers study individuals' understanding of
their social reality.

• Phenomenon: a fact or an event in nature or society, especially one that is not fully
understood.

• Anthropology is the study of the origin and development of human societies and
cultures. Culture is the learned behaviour of people, including their languages, belief
systems, social structures, institutions, and material goods.

Example:

• Qualitative research is a market research method that focuses on obtaining data

through open-ended and conversational communication. This method is not only
about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example, consider a
convenience store looking to improve its patronage.

Nature of qualitative research studies?

– Ask broad, general questions

– Explore individuals’ perspectives of a single concept (often called a

phenomenon)

– Collect data consisting largely of words (or text) from participants

– Describe and analyze these words for themes

– Conduct the inquiry in a subjective and reflexive manner

How do you identify qualitative research studies?

- Words that indicate a qualitative study:

 – Narrative

– Case study

– Ethnography

– Grounded theory

• Words that indicate narrative (or text-based) data:

– One-on-one interview

– Focus group interview

– Transcription

– Observation field notes

• Words that indicate textual analysis:

– Themes

– Content analysis

– Description

– Perspectives

(Transcription - the act or process of representing something in a written or printed

form)

3. What are combined research studies?

– Ask narrow, specific questions and broad, general questions

– Explain variables and explores a phenomenon

– Collect data consisting of numbers and words

– Analyze these data for statistical trends and themes

– Combines the two sets of results into an overall understanding of the topic
4 What are the four common qualitative research designs/ methods?

– Narrative

– Case study

– Ethnography

– Grounded theory

What characteristics distinguish the different qualitative research designs?

– Central phenomena of interest (e.g., a group’s culture, an individual’s story)

– Intents (e.g., to describe and interpret, to develop a theory)

– Procedures (e.g., how data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted; how
results are reported)

What are the identifying characteristics of narrative research?

– Used terms such as narrative research, narrative inquiry, story, biography, or
autobiography

– Explored individual experiences as told through stories

– Collected field texts (personal conversations, journals, letters, etc.) which

document the individual’s story

– “Restoried” the data by identifying story elements (e.g., characters, plot,

setting) and organizing them

– Analyzed the data for themes, tensions within the story, and larger contexts
that shape the story

– Results and Conclusion sections focused on telling and interpreting the

individual’s story
What are the identifying characteristics of case study research?

– Uses terms such as case study, collective case study or multiple case study

– Research problem calls for in-depth exploration of a case, a bounded system

of people

– Selects case because it is unusual and has merit in and of itself or illustrates a
specific issue

– Collects interviews, observations, pictures, documents, videotapes, and/or e-

mails

– Analyzes data for description and themes

– Results included description of the case(s), themes, and lessons learned

What are the identifying characteristics of ethnographic research?

– Uses terms such as ethnography or ethnographic

– Describes a culture-sharing group

– Conducts extensive fieldwork to understand the language, rituals,

communication styles, and economic and political structures that develop
over time

– Collects interviews, documents, and other artifacts

– Analyzes the data for shared patterns of behaviors, beliefs, and language

– Results included a cultural portrait

What are the identifying the characteristics of grounded theory research?

– Uses the term grounded theory

– Research problem calls for a theory that explains a process, action, or

interaction.
 – Collects interviews from multiple people to provide the most complete data.
It is a social structural processes with in social setting

– Grounded theory is a qualitative method that enables you to study a

particular phenomenon or process and discover new theories that are based
on the collection and analysis of real world data.

– Analyzes the data using multiple stages of coding

– Results include a model of the theory and propositions from the theory

4. How do you recognize the research design in a qualitative research report?

• Check if the author named the design in the title or abstract of the report

• Examine the purpose statement to see if it names or suggests the study’s

research design

• Read the beginning paragraphs of the Method section and look for a
statement that identifies the design

• Examine the Method and Results sections to identify how the author
collected, analyzed, and reported the data

• MCQ’S

1. Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research?

– A. Grounded Theory Research

– B. Correlational Research

– C. Quasi-Experimental Research

– D. Experimental Research
 2. Which of the following is a qualitative research design where lived
experiences of individuals are examined in their "life-world"?

– A. Ethnography

– B. Ethology

– C. Phenomenology

– D. Grounded theory

3. Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on description and

interpretation of cultural behaviour?

– A. Phenomenology

– B. Grounded theory

– C. Ethnography

– D. Symbolic interactionism

4. The area of inquiry in grounded theory approach is

– A. Holistic view of culture

– B. Lived experiences

– C. Behaviour observed over time in natural context

– D. Social structural processes with in social setting

5. Characteristics of qualitative research design are

– A. Flexible and elastic design

– B. Use of mixed methodologies

– C. Ongoing analysis to formulate subsequent strategies

– D. Researcher becomes the instrument

– E. All of the above