1

21CSE224T: Computer
Architecture

Unit 2: Basic Structure of

Computers
Presented by:-

Dr. Jitendra Singh

Associate Professor
CSE Department
Syllabus (Unit 2)
Basic structure of computers
2
Functional Units of a computer
Operational concepts
Bus structures
Memory addresses and operations
Assembly Language
Instructions
Instruction sequencing
Addressing modes
De Morgan’s Theorem
Adders
Multiplier – Unsigned, Signed, Fast, Carry Save Addition of summands;
Division–Restoring and Non-Restoring;
IEEE 754 Floating point numbers and operations.
Course Objectives
3
► Understanding of functional units.
► Knowledge of operational concepts.
► Familiarity with bus structures.
► Proficiency in memory addressing and operations.
► Understanding of assembly language.
► Competence in instruction sequencing.
► Knowledge of different addressing modes.
Basic Structure of Computers 4
Functional Units of a Computer
5

Figure: Functional Units of a Computer

Operational Concept
6
Bus structures
7
In computer system all the peripherals are connected to
microprocessor through Bus.

Figure: Single Bus Structure

Types of Bus structure:

1. Address bus
2. Data bus
3. Control bus
Memory addresses and operations
8

Memory consists of a collection of storage locations, each

location has a unique identifier, called an address
32-bit Word Structure
9
Memory Word
10
11
Memory Operations
12
Load (or Read or Fetch)
• Copy the content. The memory content doesn’t
change.
• Address – Load
• Registers can be used

Store (or Write)

• Overwrite the content in memory
• Address and Data – Store
• Registers can be used
Assembly Language
13
• Assembly language is a low-level programming language
that provides a direct representation of machine
instructions.

• It serves as a bridge between high-level languages and the

computer's hardware, offering precise control over system
resources.
Basic Concepts in Assembly
14
Language
• Assembly language instructions: Mnemonic
representations of machine instructions (e.g., MOV,
ADD, JMP).

• Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the

processor used for temporary data storage and
calculations.

• Memory: Storage space for program instructions and

data.

• Operand Types: Immediate, register, memory, and

addressing modes.
Instruction Format
15
• Assembly language instructions typically consist of an
operation code (opcode) and operands.

Examples:

MOV AX, 5;
ADD BX, AX;
JMP LABEL.
Assembly Language
16
• Advantages: Increased control over hardware, efficient
code execution, ability to optimize critical sections, direct
memory and register access.

• Disadvantages: Steep learning curve, platform-specific,

longer development time, lack of portability.
 17
Example: Decimal Number 93
Decimal Number Representation
ADD #93, R1
Binary Number Representation
• It identified by a prefix symbol such as a
percent sign
ADD #%01011101, R1
Hexadecimal Representation
• In assembly language, a hex representation is
often identified by a dollar sign prefix. Example
ADD #$5D, R1
Instructions
18
Instructions are the elementary operations or the task
that a computer system can perform.

Computer instructions must be capable of performing 4

types of operations.
❑ Data transfer/movement
❑ Arithmetic and logic operation
❑ Program sequencing and flow of control
❑ Input/output transfers
Instruction Sequencing
19
1. Straight line Sequencing

Straight line sequencing refers to the sequential

execution of instructions in a program

MOV AX, 5 ; Move value 5 into register AX

ADD AX, 3 ; Add 3 to the value in register AX
SUB AX, 2 ; Subtract 2 from the value in register AX
 20
2. Branch Instruction Sequencing

Branch instruction sequencing involves altering the

sequential flow of instructions by introducing
branching or conditional jumps based on certain
conditions.

MOV AX, 5 ; Move value 5 into register AX

CMP AX, 0 ; Compare the value in register AX with 0
JE Label1 ; Jump to Label1 if the values are equal
ADD AX, 3 ; Add 3 to the value in register AX
Label1:
SUB AX, 2 ; Subtract 2 from the value in register AX
Execution of an instruction
21
The following steps involved in the execution of
an instruction by a processor:
• Fetch an instruction from the memory.
• Fetch the operands.
• Execute the instruction.
• Store the results.
Instruction types
22
Instruction types (contd..)
23
Instruction types (contd..)
24
Addressing modes
• The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified 25
in an instruction are known as addressing modes.
De Morgan’s Theorem 26

► De Morgan's theorem consists of two rules:

► De Morgan's First Theorem
► De Morgan's Second Theorem
De-Morgan's First Theorem 27
(A.B)' = A'+B'
Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A.B (A.B)' A' B' A'+B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 De-Morgan's Second Theorem 28
(A+B)' = A'.B
'
Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A+B (A+B)' A' B' A'.B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Half Adder 29
 30

► Sum = A XOR B = A.B’+A’.B

► Carry = A AND B =A.B
Full Adder 31
 Sum = x xor y xor z 32
Carry = xy + xz + yz

► Truth Table
33
Ripple Carry Adder 34
(n-Bit Adder)
Binary Adder-Subtractor 35
Carry Look-ahead Adder 36
37
38
39
Unsigned Multiplier 40
41
42
43
44
Signed Multiplier 45
Booth Multiplication
46
47
Fast Multiplier 48
Bit Pair Recording of Multiplier
49
50
Carry Save Addition of
51
summands
52
53
Division 54
Restoring Division 55
56
57
Non-Restoring Division 58
59
IEEE 754 Floating point numbers
60
IEEE 754 Floating point operations 61
IEEE 754 Floating point operations 62