Topic 37: Literary language. Literary genres.

Literary criticism

Content
INTRODUCTION
1. Literary language and literature
1.1 Literary language in literary texts
1.2 Style in literary texts
2. Literary genres
2.1 Poetry
2.2 Drama
2.3 Narrative or Fiction
3. Literary criticism
3.1 Different focuses
4. Literature in the classroom
4.1 Reasons for its integration
4.2 Activities to carry out in class
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
Literature is an essential part of the cultural heritage of a language and, although it started as
oral tradition, it is intrinsically connected to the written language. This production has
manifested itself through a variety of genres and using a kind of language which is traditionally
known as literary language.
Topic 37 is on literary language, literary genres, and literary criticism. However, the role
literature has in the foreign language curriculum is also an important issue which deserves
analysis. Therefore, to cover all of these aspects I have divided the essay into four main parts.
The first describes what literary language and literature are, while the second goes over the
literary genres, dividing them into poetry, drama and narrative or fiction. The third section
provides a general overview on literary criticism and lastly, the fourth part deals with the role
literature may play in the classroom focusing on its reasons for its integration and providing
some activities that could be carried out in class. The topic is then wrapped up in a conclusion
to which I have added a bibliography that has helped me draft out the essay.

1. Literary Language and Literature

Literature arises from the need human beings have to express their feelings and emotions, tell
stories and transmit the knowledge from one generation to the next. Before writing is
introduced, this transmission is oral and relies on the good memory of the transmitter.
Once the language community introduces writing, the need to remember is lessened. However,
until the arrival of the printing press, literature and literary language was restricted to scholars
who could read and write; or written to be read or performed, therefore be transmitted orally.
1.1 Literary Language in Literary Texts
But what is literature? For some scholars it is the expression of certain individuals who are able
to have and express distinctive experiences. For others, literature is the text itself, while others
conceive it as existing through the interpretation of the reader, this implies that there are as
many interpretations as readers. Following Jakobson, the main function is poetic, followed
closely by the expressive since its focus is on the language and the structural patterns of the
text, and on the writer’s feelings.
The expression of feelings, however, also forms part of everyday language. In this line, Barthes
said that all encoded systems use denotation (i.e., the literal meaning of a term) and
connotations (i.e., our interpretation). In this sense the word “white” may denote a color, but
while in some cultures it may also connote purity and innocence, in others it connotes death.
This explains why the reader’s interpretation of the text is also important. Indeed, he pointed
out that a text is defined by its interaction with the reader, but for it to be effective some
awareness of the contextual situation is needed.
Literary language therefore makes use of the resources that language offers in a great variety of
ways. Like this, authors use symbolism, repetitions, metaphors, similes, synecdoches etc.
Although these are not exclusive to literary language, they are a feature of it and often mark
style.
1.2 Style in Literary Texts
Style is defined as the choices made by a particular author in a particular genre or text. These
choices may be in syntax, lexis, or sound so as to produce a desired effect on the reader/
listener, or to express one’s feelings, emotions, etc.
Moreover, structural patterns also play an important role. They may occur in the choice of words
or sentences. Phonological patterns help to convey and express images, particularly alliteration
as in Beowulf. Semantic patterns on the other hand are used to produce impressions of
perfection, imperfection, purity, evil, etc., either because those concepts are in the meaning of
the words or because of the connotations attached to it.

2. Literary Genres
Genres in literature are established categories of composition characterized by their structure,
distinctive language, and subject matter. Following Aristotle’s traditional classification, genres
are divided into poetry, drama, and narrative or fiction.
2.1 Poetry
Poetry is conceived to be read aloud or recited therefore, the rhythm, sounds and intonation
are essential. Due to its oral nature, poetry is usually a relatively short composition which needs
a careful selection of words and meanings to fit into its metrical patterns, this explains why it
requires the violation of normal syntactic, structural, semantic and graphological patterns.
Poetry was originally epic and told the deeds and feats of a hero. It arose from the human need
to tell stories; however, it is usually of a rather personal nature. Poetry evolved into a great
variety of forms, some more narrative and others more intimate as exemplified by Yeats, Byron,
E.A. Poe, etc. Other authors such as Coleridge or Byron followed classical forms like epigrams,
particularly in the form of satirical poem. Indeed, not only satirical poetry, but also comic or
humorous poetry became very popular.
2.2. Drama
Drama was conceived to be represented by actors on a stage. It became very popular in the late
16th Century in the English society. The most outstanding authors are Kid, Marlow, and
Shakespeare.

Influenced by the Italian Renaissance, the two sub-genres that developed were tragedies,
comedies and historical plays. These followed the classical structures of acts. The first act set
the characters and the plot, the second presented the climax and the third the resolution. They
have also followed classical techniques such as parody and satire, particularly in comedy.
In the 20th Century, the theatre of the absurd emerged with Beckett’s Waiting for Godot or
Eugene O’Neill’s The Chairs. They broke away from classical tradition in every way. Language,
particularly in the case of Beckett was full of metaphors, puns, synecdoche, ambiguities, etc. In
addition, the development of the film industry influenced both drama and fiction and started to
adapt, to that medium, well-known dramas as Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Othello or Romeo and
Juliet. A further development took the form of musicals.
 2.3 Narrative or fiction
Narrative is a genre conceived to be read. It wasn’t until the 19th Century when novel writing
spread widely on both sides of the Atlantic and different subgenres first appeared: social
realism, romanticism, gothic, mystery, etc.
Moreover, influenced by Cervantes and the picaresque tradition, authors like Richardson and
Fielding introduced the epistolary novel, where the plot is developed through letters, and the
omniscient narrator, respectively. Other names as Steinbeck, Hemmingway, Joyce, Virginia
Woolf, John Le Carré, Ken Follet, etc., contributed to fiction in the 19th, 20th, and 21st Centuries.
Lastly, short stories also became an essential part of fiction with Edgar Allan Poe as the first
exponent. Fiction, like drama, has influenced and has been influenced by the cinema with many
literary works made into film adaptations.

3. Literary Criticism
Literary criticism originated in Ancient Greece with philosophy and rhetoric establishing models
of what creative works should be like. For Plato, art should play the role of teaching morals and
ethics rather than entertaining. However, Aristotle saw it as a means to an end, which could
either be teaching morals and ethics, but also entertain an audience.
These two approaches have pervaded Western approaches to literary criticism, with some critics
favoring Plato and other Aristotle. Moreover, since the 20th century, different ways of
approaching, criticizing and analyzing a literary piece have been developed.
3.1 Different focuses
These approaches place the focus on the author, the text and reader. When the focus is on the
author, it may either analyze what the author means through the characters’ behavior, the
narrative event, etc., or focus on class differences and analyze who the work of art benefits,
the social class of the author, what social classes it represents, etc. When the focus is on the
text, literary criticism tries to analyze what the text means. Lastly, when the focus is on the
reader the interpretation of the text is a collaborative process between the author and the
reader.
Influenced by this, the focus then varies in terms of gender, history and culture and post-
colonialism. That is, how women or gays are dealt with, how the history is told, and how
non – Europeans are treated in a literary piece.
Literature and literary criticism can be interpreted and analyzed from a variety of viewpoints,
the above-mentioned are just some examples.

4. Literature in the classroom

4.1 Reasons for its integration
A lot has been said about the integration of literature in the secondary education curricula.
Those who oppose argue that they do not teach how to solve a practical situation in the foreign
language and that they are too difficult to deal with in class. However, authors such as Duff, Fish
and others point out the benefits of integrating literature in the classroom. Firstly, literature
does not only use literary language found in every aspect of human communication, but it also
provides interesting topics to read, talk and write about. Moreover, it fosters creative writing.
In addition, since literature is connotative and representational, it can be used to teach students
that utterances have a second meaning. This, especially in Bachillerato students, will increase
their motivation because they will enjoy reading when they become aware of how language is
used.
Furthermore, literary texts direct the reader’s attention to the “narrative mode of thought”. This
implies that when we read about the experiences of others, it allows us to reflect on what we
would have known, felt like, etc. in that situation. Lastly, they contribute to the development of
cultural knowledge.
 4.2 Activities to carry out in class
Although literature should not be central in the English classroom, it can be a part of it, perhaps
what is needed is the inclusion of different types of literary texts. There are many ways to carry
out literary texts in the English classroom. Pre-reading activities could be designed to serve as a
link between books and students’ everyday lives, or between books and students’ language.
Another option can include storytelling or drama activities in groups as a written or oral follow-
up activity. Likewise, in cooperation with the Spanish teacher, students may be required to read
a book in Spanish and then deal with a passage from the original in English.
There are many ways to deal with literary texts in classroom, the above-mentioned are just some
examples

CONCLUSION
All in all, topic 37 deals with literature and literary language. This essay has tried to provide a
general overview by first explaining what literary language and literature are, focusing on
literary language and style in literary texts, dealing then with literary genres (poetry, drama, and
narrative). The third section has given a very broad overview on the different approaches to
literary criticism, dealing then with the role of literature in the English classroom in the fourth
part, giving reasons for its integration in the curriculum and some suggestions on activities that
could be carried out in class.
To inspire a love for literature, teachers must move beyond traditional lectures, using diverse,
dynamic activities that connect literary texts to students’ experiences. Initiatives such as
collaborative eTwinning projects or online platforms for creative writing encourage meaningful
engagement. The ultimate goal is to foster a lifelong appreciation for literature, empowering
students to navigate a world where critical thinking and cultural understanding are more
essential than ever.
Literature and literary language are a part of the cultural heritage of a language, and as Barthes
has said, literature has been written to be read and enjoyed, and Secondary education students,
while learning everyday language, can also benefit from enjoying literature in English.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND WEBOGRAPHY

Books

1. Eagleton, T. (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell.

2. Culler, J. (2011). Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University
Press.
3. Abrams, M.H. (1999). A Glossary of Literary Terms. Harcourt.
4. Barry, P. (2017). Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural
Theory. Manchester University Press.

Web Resources

1. OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab: https://owl.purdue.edu/

2. Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/
3. SparkNotes Literature Study Guides: https://www.sparknotes.com/
4. Project Gutenberg (Free classic texts): https://www.gutenberg.org/

This bibliography and webography provide both foundational texts and practical resources,
enabling a well-rounded approach to literary studies.