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Intermediate Value Theorem

The document presents a simple proof of the Intermediate-Value Theorem, which states that a continuous function defined on a finite interval takes all values between its endpoints. It also establishes the existence of unique positive nth roots for positive real numbers as a corollary. The proof relies on concepts from analysis, including the least upper bound property and continuity of functions.

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Layla Salek
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21 views2 pages

Intermediate Value Theorem

The document presents a simple proof of the Intermediate-Value Theorem, which states that a continuous function defined on a finite interval takes all values between its endpoints. It also establishes the existence of unique positive nth roots for positive real numbers as a corollary. The proof relies on concepts from analysis, including the least upper bound property and continuity of functions.

Uploaded by

Layla Salek
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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IntermediateValueTheorem.

tex 11/9/14, 2/15/15, December 20, 2020

The Intermediate-Value Theorem


John A. Gubner
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Wisconsin–Madison

Abstract
A simple proof of the intermediate-value theorem is given. As an easy corollary,
we establish the existence of 𝑛th roots of positive numbers. It is assumed that the
reader is familiar with the following facts and concepts from analysis:
• Let 𝐴 be a nonempty set of real numbers bounded above. Then 𝐴 has a least
upper bound 𝑥0 [1].
• A function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 if given any 𝜀 > 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that
for all 𝑥 with |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿, | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥 0 )| < 𝜀. This last inequality can be
rewritten as
−𝜀 < 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) < 𝜀
or, by multiplying through by −1,

−𝜀 < 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) < 𝜀,

from which we get

−𝜀 + 𝑓 (𝑥) < 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) < 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝜀.

If you find this writeup useful, or if you find typos or mistakes, please let me
know at [email protected]

References
[1] W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

1
IntermediateValueTheorem.tex 11/9/14, 2/15/15, December 20, 2020

The Intermediate-Value Theorem. Let 𝑓 be a real-valued, continuous function


defined on a finite interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then 𝑓 takes all values between 𝑓 (𝑎) and 𝑓 (𝑏).
Proof. Without loss of generality, suppose 𝑓 (𝑎) < 𝑦 0 < 𝑓 (𝑏). Put 𝐴 := {𝑥 ∈
[𝑎, 𝑏] : 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑦 0 }. Since 𝑓 (𝑎) < 𝑦 0 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and we see that 𝐴 is nonempty. By
definition, 𝐴 is bounded above. Therefore, the least upper bound axiom tells us that
𝐴 has a least upper bound, which we denote by 𝑥 0 . We show below that 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = 𝑦 0 .
We start by showing that 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) is defined; i.e., we show that 𝑥0 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. Since 𝑏
is an upper bound of 𝐴, the least upper bound 𝑥0 ≤ 𝑏. Since 𝑥0 is an upper bound of
𝐴 and since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, we must have 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 0 .
Let 𝜀 > 0 be given. Continuity of 𝑓 at 𝑥0 implies that there is an 𝛿 > 0 such that
for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] with |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿, we have | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥 0 )| < 𝜀. Equivalently,
−𝜀 + 𝑓 (𝑥) < 𝑓 (𝑥 0 ) < 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝜀. (1)
Since 𝑥0 is the least upper bound of 𝐴, 𝑥0 − 𝛿 is not an upper bound of 𝐴; hence,
there is some 𝑥1 ∈ 𝐴 with 𝑥0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 1 ≤ 𝑥0 . Since |𝑥1 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿, we have from the
right-hand inequality in (1) that
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) < 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) + 𝜀 ≤ 𝑦 0 + 𝜀, since 𝑥 1 ∈ 𝐴.
Since 𝜀 was arbitrary, it must be that 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑦 0 . This further implies that 𝑥0 < 𝑏;
otherwise, if 𝑥 0 = 𝑏, we would have 𝑦 0 < 𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑦 0 . Now that we have
𝑥0 < 𝑏, choose any 𝑥2 with 𝑥0 < 𝑥2 < 𝑏 and |𝑥 2 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿. Then by the left-hand
inequality in (1),
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) > 𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) − 𝜀 > 𝑦 0 − 𝜀, since 𝑥2 > 𝑥0 implies 𝑥2 ∉ 𝐴.
Since 𝜀 was arbitrary, it must be that 𝑓 (𝑥 0 ) ≥ 𝑦 0 .
Lemma 1. If 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏 < ∞, then 𝑎 𝑛 < 𝑏 𝑛 for 𝑛 = 1, 2, . . . .
Proof. Put 𝑡 := 𝑎/𝑏 < 1. Repeatedly multiplying this inequality by 𝑡 yields
𝑡 2 < 𝑡, 𝑡 3 < 𝑡 2 , etc. Hence, 𝑡 𝑛 < · · · < 𝑡 2 < 1. It follows that 𝑎 𝑛 /𝑏 𝑛 < 1 or 𝑎 𝑛 < 𝑏 𝑛 .

Corollary 2 (𝑛th Roots). Every positive real number has a unique positive 𝑛th
root for 𝑛 = 1, 2, . . . .
Proof. Given 𝑦 0 > 0, we must prove the existence of 𝑥0 > 0 with 𝑥 0𝑛 = 𝑦 0 . If
𝑦 0 = 1, we can take 𝑥0 = 1. If 𝑦 0 < 1, then 𝑎 := 𝑦 0 /2 < 𝑦 0 < 1 satisfies 𝑎 𝑛 < 𝑎 < 𝑦 0 .
With 𝑏 := 1, we have 𝑎 𝑛 < 𝑦 0 < 1 = 𝑏 𝑛 . Now apply the intermediate-value theorem
to the continuous function 𝑓 (𝑥) := 𝑥 𝑛 on [𝑎, 𝑏] to get the existence of 𝑥0 . By the
lemma, 𝑥0 is unique. For 𝑦 0 > 1, let 𝑢 solve 𝑓 (𝑢) = 1/𝑦 0 ; i.e., 𝑢 𝑛 = 1/𝑦 0 or
(1/𝑢) 𝑛 = 𝑦 0 .

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