Data Communication & Computer Network

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network
that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked
computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-
known computer network is the Internet.
This tutorial should teach you basics of Data Communication and Computer Network
(DCN) and will also take you through various advance concepts related to Data
Communication and Computer Network.

Why to Learn Data Communication & Computer Network?

Network Basic Understanding
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is
called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information
sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless
media.
Network Engineering
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip
level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the
whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and
they depend on each other only to take input and send output.
Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted
from one person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video
file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a
computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication
channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it
should be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi
and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another
device is known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission
mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

 o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data
flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive
the data but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications
require the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in
the business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding
reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a
keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only
be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of
the communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

 o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a
time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication

between devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if
any error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit
the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-
talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the
other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will
create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

 o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data
and also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then

another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the
right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data

flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the
opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

 o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the
capacity of the communication channel is divided into two parts.

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can
be computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the
data. The links connecting the nodes are known as communication channels.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided

among several computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task,
each separate computer handles a subset.

Following are the advantages of Distributed processing:

o Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with the
entire system. For example, a bank allows the users to access their
own accounts through an ATM without allowing them to access the
bank's entire database.
o Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem
faster than a single machine working alone.
o Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the
same program at the same time can provide the security through
redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program and
any computer has a hardware error, then other computers can override
it.
o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each
other through wires, optical fibres or optical links so that various
devices can interact with each o
o ther through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among
various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of
networks that vary from simple to complex level.

Components Of Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:
NIC(National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link
layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the network so that
it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless
NIC, a connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio
wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the
medium.

Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple
devices. When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends
the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected
computers.
Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to
transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not
broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the
device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication
signals. There are three types of cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data

over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable.
Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides
the high data transmission speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that
transmits the data using light beams. It provides high data
transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive
as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly
used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple
computers.

Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone
line. A modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is
a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such
as programs, printers, and data among the users on the network
without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-
client model. A server is a central computer used to store the
information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are
the machines used to access the information stored in the server
remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a
communication medium among the users. For example, a company
contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.

o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We

can do the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is
doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.
Features Of Computer network
A list Of Computer network features is given below.

o Communication speed
o File sharing
o Back up and Roll back is easy
o Software and Hardware sharing
o Security
o Scalability
o Reliability
o Communication speed
o Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and
efficient manner. For example, we can do video conferencing, email
 messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is
a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

o File sharing
o File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network.
Computer network provides us to share the files with each other.

o Back up and Roll back is easy

o Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located.
Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main server.

o Software and Hardware sharing

o We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user
can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the
software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

o Security
o Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to
access the certain files and applications.

o Scalability
o Scalability means that we can add the new components on the
network. Network must be scalable so that we can extend the network
by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection
and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the
chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the
routing or switching devices.
 o

o Reliability
o Computer network can use the alternative source for the data
communication in case of any hardware failure.

o Computer Network Types

o A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and
share their resources, data, and applications.

o A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer

network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in
a small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea
of the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed

by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range
network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by

using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves

with a person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person.
Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then creates a
connection with another device to share the information.
 o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home,
so it is also known as a home network. A home network is designed
to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but they
are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the
internet and to a corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic
cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or

country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services
to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with
fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects
the 44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line
provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
 o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical
area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through
which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore,
we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore,
the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast.
The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives
the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate
which in turn increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to

LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that
creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall
needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus
is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it
involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is
difficult.
 o Computer Network Architecture
o Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical
design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are
linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing
the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized

system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different
in different locations.

It has a security issue as the device is managed itself

History of the Internet

Internet
The Internet, commonly referred to as "the Net," is a global wide area
network (GWAN) or a network of networks that links computer systems all
over the world. Generally, it is a worldwide system of computer networks
that have different high-bandwidth data lines, which includes the Internet
"backbone." Users at any computer can access information from any other
computer via the internet (assuming they have authorization). It was known
as the ARPANet for the first time, and in 1969, the ARPA, called Advanced
Research Projects Agency, conceived the internet. Allowing communication
between users and devices from any distance was the primary objective to
create the network. You will need an Internet service provider (ISP) in terms
of connecting to the Internet since they operate as a middleman between
you and the Internet. Most Internet service providers provide you DSL, cable,
or fiber connection to connect to the internet. Below is a table that contains
an overall history of the internet.

196 This is the year in which the internet started to share information s a way fo
0 government researchers. And, the first known MODEM and dataphone wer
introduced by AT&T.

196 On May 31, 1961, Leonard Kleinrock released his first paper, "Information Flow i
1 Large Communication Nets."

196 A paper talking about packetization was released by Leonard Kleinrock. Also, thi
2 year, a suggestion was given by Paul Baran for the transmission of data with th
help of using fixed-size message blocks

196 Baran produced a study on distributed communications in 1964. In the same year
4 Leonard Kleinrock released Communication Nets Stochastic Message Flow an
Design, the first book on packet nets.

196 The first long-distance dial-up link was established between a TX-2 computer and
5 Q-32 at SDC in California by Lawrence G. Roberts of MIT and Tom Marill of SDC i
California with a Q-32. Also, the word "Packet" was coined by Donald in this year.

196 After getting success at connecting over dial-up, a paper about this was publishe
6 by Tom Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts
In the same year, Robert Taylor brought Larry Roberts and joined ARPA to develo
ARPANET.

196 In 1967, 1-node NPL packet net was created by Donald Davies. For packet switch
7 the use of a minicomputer was suggested by Wes Clark.

196 On 9 December 1968, Hypertext was publicly demonstrated by Doug Engelbar

8 The first meeting regarding NWG (Network Working Group) was also held this year
and on June 3, 1968, the ARPANET program plan was published by Larry Roberts.
196 On 1 April 1969, talking about the IMP software and introducing the Host-to-Host
9 RFC #1 was released by Steve Crocker. On 3 July 1969, a press was released fo
announcing the public to the Internet by UCLA. On August 29, 1969, UCLA receive
the first network equipment and the first network switch. CompuServe, the firs
commercial internet service, was founded the same year.

197 This is the year in which NCP was released by the UCLA team and Steve Crocker.
0

197 In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail via a network to other users.
1

197 In 1972, the ARPANET was initially demonstrated to the general public.
2

197 TCP was created by Vinton Cerf in 1973, and it was released in December 197
3 with the help of Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine. ARPA also launched the firs
international link, SATNET, this year. And, the Ethernet was created by Rober
Metcalfe at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center.

197 In 1974, the Telenet, a commercial version of ARPANET, was introduced. Man
4 consider it to be the first Internet service provider.

197 In 1978, to support real-time traffic, TCP split into TCP/IP, which was driven by Joh
8 Shoch, David Reed, and Danny Cohen. Later on, on 1 January 1983, the creation o
TCP/IP was standardized into ARPANET and helped create UDP. Also, in the sam
year, the first worm was developed by Jon Hupp and John Shoch at Xerox PARC.

198 BITNET was established in 1981. It is a time network that was formerly a networ
1 of IBM mainframe computers in the United States.

198 In 1983, the TCP/IP was standardized by ARPANET, and the IAB, short for Interne
3 Activities Board was also founded in the same year.

198 The DNS was introduced by Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris.
4

198 The first Listserv was developed by Eric Thomas, and NSFNET was also created i
6 1986. Additionally, BITNET II was created in the same year 1986.

198 The First T1 backbone was included in ARPANET, and CSNET and CSNET merged t
8 create CREN.

198 A proposal for a distributed system was submitted by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN o
9 12 March 1989 that would later become the WWW.
199 This year, NSFNET replaced the ARPANET. On 10 September 1990, Mike Parker, Bi
0 Heelan, and Alan Emtage released the first search engine Archie at McGi
University in Montreal, Canada.

199 Tim Berners-Lee introduced the WWW (World Wide Web) on August 6, 1991. O
1 August 6, 1991, he also unveiled the first web page and website to the genera
public. Also, this year, the internet started to be available to the public by NSF
Outside of Europe, the first web server came on 1 December 1991.

199 The main revolution came in the field of the internet that the internet Society wa
2 formed, and NSFNET upgraded to a T3 backbone.

199 CERN submitted the Web source code to the public domain on April 30, 1993. Thi
3 caused the Web to experience massive growth. Also, this year, the United Nation
and the White House came, which helped to begin top-level domains, such as .go
and .org. On 22 April 1993, the first widely-used graphical World Wide We
browser, Mosaic, was released by the NCSA with the help of Eric Bina and Mar
Andreessen.

199 On April 4, 1994, James H. Clark and Marc Andreessen found the Mosai
4 Communications Corporation, Netscape. On 13 October 1994, the first Netscap
browser, Mosaic Netscape 0.9, was released, which also introduced the Internet t
cookies. On 7 November 1994, a radio station, WXYC, announced broadcasting o
the Internet, and it became the first traditional radio station for this. Also, in th
same year, the W3C was established by Tim Berners-Lee.

199 In February 1995, Netscape introduced the SSL (Secure sockets layer), and th
5 dot-com boom began. Also, the Opera web browser was introduced to browsin
web pages on 1 April 1995, and to make voice calls over the Internet, the Vocaltec
the first VoIP software, was introduced
Later, the Internet Explorer web browser was introduced by Microsoft on 16 Augus
1995. In RFC 1866, the next version of HTML 2.0 was released on 24 Novembe
1995.
In 1995, JavaScript, originally known as LiveScript, was created by Brendan Eich. A
that time, he was an employee at Netscape Communications Corporation. Late
LiveScript was renamed to JavaScript with Netscape 2.0B3 on December 4, 1995
In the same year, they also introduced Java.

199 This year, Telecom Act took a big Decision and deregulated data networks. Also
6 Macromedia Flash that is now known as Adobe Flash was released in 1996
In December 1996, the W3C published CSS 1, the first CSS specification. A
compared to postal mail, more e-mail was sent in the USA. This is the year i
which the network has ceased to exist as CREN ended its support.

199 In 1997, the 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standard was introduced by IEEE, and the internet
7 consortium was also established.

199 The first Internet weblogs arose in this year, and on February 10, 1998, XM
8 became a W3C recommendation.

199 In September 1999, Napster began sharing files, and Marc Ostrofsky, th
9 business.com, the most expensive Internet domain name for $7.5 million on
December 1999. Later on, on 26 July 2007, this domain was sold for $345 millio
to R.H. Donnelley.

200 The craze of dot-com began to decrease.

0

200 The members of CERN took the decision to dissolve the organization on 7 Januar
3 2003. Also, this year, the Safari web browser came into the market on 30 Jun
2003.

200 The Mozilla Firefox web browser was released by Mozilla on 9 November 2004.
4

200 On 1 March 2008, the support b AOL for the Netscape Internet browser was ended
8 Then, the Google Chrome web browser was introduced by Google on 11 Decembe
2008, and gradually it became a popular web browser.

200 A person using the fictitious name Satoshi Nakamoto published the internet mone
9 Bitcoin on 3 January 2009.

201 On 28 October 2014, W3C recommended and released the HTML5 programmin
4 language to the public.

What is Protocol Layering?

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a language that devices
will use to communicate. There are an excellent range of protocols in use extensively in
networking, and that they are usually implemented in numerous layers.
It provides a communication service where the process is used to exchange the
messages. When the communication is simple, we can use only one simple protocol.
When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between different layers,
so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this technique we used to call protocol
layering. This layering allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
Each layer needs to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give the
services to the upper layer. The modification done in any one layer will not affect the
other layers.
Basic Elements of Layered Architecture
The basic elements of the layered architecture are as follows −
 Service − Set of actions or services provided from one layer to the higher layer.
 Protocol − It defines a set of rules where a layer uses to exchange the information
with its peer entity. It is concerned about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
 Interface − It is a way through that the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.

Reasons
The reasons for using layered protocols are explained below −
 Layering of protocols provides well-defined interfaces between the layers, so that
a change in one layer does not affect an adjacent layer.
 The protocols of a network are extremely complicated and designing them in
layers makes their implementation more feasible.

Advantages
The advantages of layered protocols are as follows −
 Assists in protocol style, as a result of protocols that operate at a particular layer
have outlined information that they work and a defined interface to the layers on
top of and below.
 Foster’s competition because products from completely different vendors will
work along.
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from touching different
layers above and below.
 Provides a typical language to explain networking functions and capabilities.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of layered protocols are as follows −
 The main disadvantages of layered systems consist primarily of overhead each in
computation and in message headers caused by the abstraction barriers between
layers. Because a message typically should pass through several (10 or more)
protocol layers the overhead of those boundaries is commonly more than the
computation being done.
  The upper-level layers cannot see what is within the lower layers, implying that an
application cannot correct where in an exceedingly connection a problem is or
precisely what the matter is.
 The higher-level layers cannot control all aspects of the lower layers, so that they
cannot modify the transfer system if helpful (like controlling windowing, header
compression, CRC/parity checking, et cetera), nor specify routing, and should
rely on the lower protocols operating, and cannot specify alternatives when there
are issues.

Network Standardization

Network Standards
Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for
interoperability of networking technologies and processes. Standards help in creating
and maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to compete on the basis of
the quality of their products while being compatible with existing market products.
During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at the
different layers. The commonly used standards at each layer are −

 Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP

 Transport layer − TCP, SPX
 Network layer −IP, IPX
 Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
 Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)

Types of Standards
Standards are of two types

 De facto − These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or
approval by any organization. They have come into existence due to traditions or
facts. For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.
 De jure − These standards are the ones which have been adopted through
legislation by any officially recognized standards organization. Most of the
communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.

Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standards organizations are
  International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks
Protocols and standards are important in computer networks. They are like
the rules and guidelines that allow different devices and systems to
communicate and work together smoothly. Protocols define how data is sent,
received, and processed, while standards ensure that various technologies
are compatible with each other. This coordination is critical for the Internet
and other networks to function constantly and efficiently.
Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of the
network are compatible with one another, reliable, and able to function
together.
What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received
over a network. The protocol is just like a language that computers use to
talk to each other, ensuring they understand and can respond to each other’s
messages correctly. Protocols help make sure that data moves smoothly and
securely between devices on a network.
To make communication successful between devices, some rules and
procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the
system. Such rules and procedures are called Protocols. Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.
Computer Network Models
A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software.
Early attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were
based on a single, complex, unstructured program with many interacting
components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and modify. To
overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a
layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and
each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that
networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into
small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full
set of services to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction
between subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services
from lower to higher layer without defining how the services are
 implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the
other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from
network to network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide
the service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the
layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and
interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher
layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange
the information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern
about both the contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred
from one layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a
communication with the layer n on another machine and the rules used
in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

 o n case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of
one machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes
the data to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is
reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual
communication takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several
small and manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an
interface. A Layered architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that
minimum information is shared among different layers. It also ensures
that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another
implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

 o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes
a design process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are
divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this
approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity
provides the independence of layers, which is easier to understand and
implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that
implementation in one layer can be changed without affecting other
layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed
and tested individually.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The
application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the
application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.
The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware
and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model
and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

7 Layers of OSI Model
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of
seven layers are given below:
 1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer
 o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual
bits from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can
be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on
the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network
layer of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from
the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical
Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream
into packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header
and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame
that contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the
destination address mentioned in the header.
 o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link
layer. It is the technique through which the constant data rate is
maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures
that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing
speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's
trailer which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the
physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the
same communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are
used to determine which device has control over the link at a given
time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

devices on the network.
 o It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service,
and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network
layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different
devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address
to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on
the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source
to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are
transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
 o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-
to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate
over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP
protocol divides the data into smaller units known as segments.
Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes,
and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct
order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does
not send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the
sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this
makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs

simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from
source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport
layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-
point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives
the message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at
the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message
based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services
Connection-oriented service and connectionless service. A
connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but
it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link.
The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the
destination without any error.

5) Session Layer
 o

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a

dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex
or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle
of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
 o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information

in the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different
computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the
data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data
compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application

processes to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application

layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
 o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in
TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two

or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets
from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the
route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant

part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses

known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and
higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork
routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which
the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the
data from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the
data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into
message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of
the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum
Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the
MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so
that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done
by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the
fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such
as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and
destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent
indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram
through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
 o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical
address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the
ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in
the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications
regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its
destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of some
unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that
the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the
destination device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems,
not correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the
sender.
 o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the
intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of
the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol
and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been
damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of
the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the
address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error
detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and
it is active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits
the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments
must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller
units known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence
number which is required for reordering the frames to form an
original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders
them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
 o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be
considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol
to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application
layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol

allows us to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the
data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext
transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP
protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer
protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail
address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to
identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people
prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system
that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a
way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.
 o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System It stands for Transmission Contro

Interconnection. Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO It was developed by ARPANET (Advance
(International Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic It consists of standard protocols that lea

protocol used as a communication gateway to the development of an internet. It is
between the network and the end user. communication protocol that provide
the connection among the hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides The transport layer does not provide th
a guarantee for the delivery of the packets. surety for the delivery of packets. Bu
still, we can say that it is a reliabl
model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizonta

approach.

In this model, the session and presentation In this model, the session an
layers are separated, i.e., both the layers are presentation layer are not differen
different. layers. Both layers are included in th
application layer.

It is also known as a reference model through It is an implemented model of an OS

which various networks are built. For model.
example, the TCP/IP model is built from the
OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance
tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides onl
connection-oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and In this model, the protocol cannot b
 can be easily replaced when the technology easily replaced.
changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols
and interfaces as well as provides a proper and interfaces are not properl
distinction between them. It is protocol separated. It is protocol dependent.
independent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices like It does not provide the standardization t
router, motherboard, switches, and other the devices. It provides a connectio
hardware devices. between various computers.

Addressing in Computer Networks

A Network Address is a logical or physical address that uniquely identifies a
host or a machine in a telecommunication network. A network may also not
be unique and can contain some structural and hierarchical information of
the node in the network. Internet protocol (IP) addresses, Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses, and telephone numbers are some basic examples
of network addresses. It can be of numeric type symbolic or both in some
cases.
Network Addressing
It is the prime responsibility of the network layer to assign unique addresses
to different nodes in a network. As mentioned earlier they can be physical or
logical but primarily they are logical addresses i.e. software-based
addresses. The most widely used network address is an IP address. It
uniquely identifies a node in an IP network. An IP address is a 32-bit long
numeric address represented in a form of dot-decimal notation where each
byte is written in a decimal form separated by a period. For example
196.32.216.9 is an IP address where 196 represents first 8 bits, 32 next 8
bits and so on. The first three bytes of an IP address represents the network
and the last byte specifies the host in the network. An IP address is further
divided into sub classes:

Physical Layer Introduction

Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which
actually deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations. This layer defines
the hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary
signals etc.
Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames
to physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent
binary data.The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.

Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such
as file on the disk.Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog
signals.
 Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
 Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.

Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many
reasons as given:
 Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently
strong.When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker.As it
covers distance, it loses strength.
 Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount
of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal
speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches
destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits
reach earlier than the previously sent ones.
 Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in
signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be
characterized in one of the following class:
o Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce
noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
o Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause
noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different
frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive strength
 or the component itself is not functioning properly, then the resultant
frequency may not be delivered as expected.
o Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media.
This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
o Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as
lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is
mostly affected by this sort of noise.

Transmission Media
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called
transmission media. Transmission media comes in two forms.
 Guided Media
All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP, coaxial cables,
and fiber Optics. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected
and the information is send (guided) through it.
 Unguided Media
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no
connectivity between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air,
and anyone including the actual recipient may collect the information.

Channel Capacity
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel capacity. We count it
as data rate in digital world. It depends on numerous factors such as:
 Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
 Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
 Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium.
This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the
streams and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes
information from the medium and distributes to different destinations.

Internet
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest
network in existence on this planet.The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can
have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and
uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using
IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to
IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge
level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various
continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

Applications of Communication & Computer Network

Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide
numerous advantages:

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices

 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

. What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted
through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
 o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media
supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by
the characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless
media. In wired media, medium characteristics are more important
whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as
bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI
reference model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a
signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical
to the transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality
of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a
signal when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of
some unwanted signal.

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

 o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength
of the signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the
loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of
the signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals
having different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the
delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some
unwanted signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with
each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission
media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight
cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns

per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following
are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-

speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of

attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
 o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made
up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from
the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting

a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
 o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

Learn more

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic

known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The
main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive
index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so
that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength,
absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

 o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth
as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as
compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can
cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in
weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.
1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will
receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
 o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which
the message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send
the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used

to detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will
stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method
used to avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media
is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes
idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It
does not work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the

cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly
used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.
 o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires

a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously,
then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
 o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to

computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the
data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

 o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star

topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager
has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the
stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the
network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot
the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star
topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with
its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its
tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be
added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,

then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with
each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.

4) Tree topology
 o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used

to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long
distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing
network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided
into segments known as star networks which can be easily managed
and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in
a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the
entire network.
 o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it

becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very
costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers

are interconnected with each other through various redundant
connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
 o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

WhereMesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is

connected to all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

 o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.

Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
 o When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with
each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist
a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in
Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according
to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the

design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive
as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Review of Error Detection and Error Correction

Code

Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system
does not guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to
the data transmitted by another device. An Error is a situation when the
message received at the receiver end is not identical to the message
transmitted.

Types Of Errors

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated
path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication
takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the
receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of
the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for
voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
 o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a

single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a
physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A
crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can
be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example,
Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and
nonblocking switches.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel

is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

 o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data
is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes
at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in
the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to
the next node. This type of network is known as store and forward
network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that

improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
 o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a

datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

 o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

o n the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively.
1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for
the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward Node does not take any routing decision.
the packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
packets travel in different directions. does not allow other packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexib

treated as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do

not require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not
require any established path prior to the transmission, and many users
can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence
makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex
and requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.
What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data
streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data streams is
known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a
multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows
many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)

available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component
signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to
receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of
the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and
bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility
of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which
several telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now
widely used in communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier
multiplexing in 1910.
Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and

multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and
demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and transfers
them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the
available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into
several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into

several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to
different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to
5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using
modulation techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to
form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known
as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has
different frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite
signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the
optical signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider
band of light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit
them to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various
optical signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is
transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
Time Division Multiplexing
o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the
same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with
different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in
the channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user
is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which
data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain
a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots
dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly
used to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to

every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective
of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots
are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for
a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each

device is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted
irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are
also transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first
 frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are
empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not
utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total
speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous
TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed
as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only
those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots
to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater
than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data
streams and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty
slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that
identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is

that many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in
Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller
transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.
 o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n
time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then
there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of
the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending
the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted
through the transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

Public Switched Telephone Network

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is an agglomeration of an interconnected
network of telephone lines owned by both governments as well as commercial
organizations.
Properties of PSTN
 It is also known as Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
 It has evolved from the invention of telephone by Alexander Graham Bell.
 The individual networks can be owned by national government, regional
government or private telephone operators.
 Its main objective is to transmit human voice in a recognizable form.
 It is an aggregation of circuit-switched networks of the world.
 Originally, it was an entirely analog network laid with copper cables and switches.
 Presently, most part of PSTN networks is digitized and comprises of a wide
variety communicating devices.
 The present PSTNs comprises of copper telephone lines, fibre optic cables,
communication satellites, microwave transmission links and undersea telephone
lines. It is also linked to the cellular networks.
 The interconnection between the different parts of the telephone system is done
by switching centres. This allows multiple telephone and cellular networks to
communicate with each other.
 Present telephone systems are tightly coupled with WANs (wide area networks)
and are used for both data and voice communications.
 The operation of PSTN networks follows the ITU-T standards.

Integrated Services Digital Network

In this article will learn about the ISDN. In this we will learn about the
introduction, various principle, services and ISDN channels in detail.

Introduction:
ISDN is a set of protocols that is based on high-speed fully digitized
telephone service. The main aim of ISDN is to provide a fully integrated
digital service to the users.

In ISDN there are following three types of ISDN services:

In ISDN there are following three types of ISDN services:

This type of services is used to transfer information such as voice, data, and
video between the users without manipulating the content of the network
information. It belongs to the first 3 layers of the OSI reference model.

Tele Services:

In these types of services, the network may change the contents of the data.
It belongs to the last 4 layers of the OSI reference model. It includes
telephony, tele box, fax, and teleconferencing etc.

Supplementary Services:

It provides additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices.

Some of the examples of supplementary services are reverse charging, call
waiting, and message handling.

Principles of ISDN:
Following are the principles of ISDN are:

o It supports both circuit switching & packet switching with the

connections at 64 kbps.
o In ISDN layered protocol architecture is used for specification.
o ISDN services provides maintenance.
o ISDN services includes some network management functions.
o In ISDN network several configurations are possible for implementing.
ISDN SERVICES:
Following are the two types of services associated with ISDN:

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a
central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers
in the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For
example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends
the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client
2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we

can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the
overall performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server
administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.