Crude Distillation

Crude distillation unit (CDU) is at the front-end of the refinery, also known as topping unit, or
atmospheric distillation unit. It receives high flow rates hence its size and operating cost are the
largest in the refinery. Many crude distillation units are designed to handle a variety of crude oil
types.
The design of the unit is based on a light crude scenario and a heavy crude scenario. The unit
should run satisfactorily at about 60% of the design feed rate. Seasonal temperature variation
should be incorporated in the design because changes in the cut point of gasoline can vary by 20
C (36 F) between summer and winter.
The capacity of the CDU ranges from 10,000 barrels per stream day (BPSD) or 1400 metric tons
per day (tpd) to 400,000 BPSD (56,000 metric tpd).
A good size CDU can process about 200,000 BPSD.
The unit produces raw products which have to be processed in downstream unit to produce
products of certain specifications. This involves the removal of undesirable components like
sulphur, nitrogen and metal compounds, and limiting the aromatic contents.
Typical products from the unit are:
● Gases
● Light straight run naphtha (also called light gasoline or light naphtha)
● Heavy gasoline (also called military jet fuel)
● Kerosene (also called light distillate or jet fuel)
● Middle distillates called diesel or light gas oil (LGO)
● Heavy distillates called atmospheric gas oil (AGO) or heavy gas oil
● (HGO)
● Crude column bottoms called atmospheric residue or topped crude.

Atmospheric Distillation of Crude oil : Process

● Crude oil is initially pumped from storage tanks and undergoes sediment and free water
removal by gravity.
● The crude oil is heated in heat exchangers with hot products from the distillation column
and pumparound liquid streams, reaching temperatures of 120–150°C (248–302°F).
● Electrostatic water separation, or desalting, is employed to separate dissolved salt in the
form of tiny droplets of water from the crude oil emulsion.
● In the electrostatic desalter, salty water droplets coalesce and migrate to the aqueous
phase through gravity, aided by mixing the crude with dilution water (5–6 vol%).
● The crude is further heated in product heat exchangers, where preheating with hot
products also cools down the products to desired temperatures for storage tank pumping.
● Partial vaporization of the crude is essential before entering the atmospheric distillation
column, ensuring that all products, except atmospheric residue, are in the vapor phase.
● A furnace is utilized to raise the temperature of the partially vaporized crude to between
330 and 385°C (626 and 725°F), depending on the crude's composition.
● The partially vaporized crude is transferred to the flash zone of the column, located
below the stripping section in a typically 50m (164ft) high column equipped with 30–50
valve trays.
● Steam injection at the bottom of the stripping section aids in stripping the atmospheric
residue of light hydrocarbons and reducing the partial pressure of hydrocarbon vapors in
the flash zone, facilitating their ascent up the column for eventual condensation and
withdrawal as side streams.
● Reflux, essential for effective separation, is provided by returning condensed vapors,
particularly light naphtha, to the column, supplemented by pumparound streams along the
column's length.
● Pumparound streams, withdrawn and cooled before being returned to the column, aid in
condensing rising vapors, removing heat from the column at higher temperatures,
improving thermal efficiency, and reducing the required furnace duty and column size.
● However, excessive pumparound streams can compromise fractionation by mixing more
fractionated liquid with less fractionated liquid a few trays above.
● Side draw products are usually stripped to control their initial boiling point, employing
strippers containing several trays and utilizing steam at the bottom or reboiler type side
stream strippers to control the end boiling point of the side stream product.
● The overhead vapour is condensed at the top of the tower by heat exchange with the cool
crude coming into the unit and by air and cooling water. The liquid product is called light
straight run naphtha. Part of this product is returned to the column as an external reflux.
Down the column
● Other products are withdrawn, such as heavy straight run naphtha, kerosene or jet fuel,
LGO and HGO. All of these products are withdrawn above the feed tray. The
atmospheric residue is withdrawn from the bottom of the column.
● The main column is equipped with between 30 and 50 valve trays
Summary

● Crude oil undergoes sediment and free water removal by gravity before being pumped
from storage tanks.
● Heating in heat exchangers with hot products and pumparound liquid streams brings the
crude oil to temperatures of 120–150°C (248–302°F).
● Electrostatic water separation (desalting) separates dissolved salt from crude oil emulsion
by coalescing salty water droplets and migrating them to the aqueous phase.
● Preheating with hot products in product heat exchangers prepares the crude oil for storage
tank pumping while further heating.
● Partial vaporization of crude oil is necessary before entering the atmospheric distillation
column to ensure vapor phase except for atmospheric residue.
● A furnace raises the temperature of partially vaporized crude oil to 330–385°C
(626–725°F) based on composition.
● Partially vaporized crude oil is transferred to the flash zone of a 50m (164ft) column
equipped with 30–50 valve trays.
● Steam injection in the stripping section aids in stripping atmospheric residue and
reducing hydrocarbon vapor pressure in the flash zone.
● Reflux, including condensed vapors and pumparound streams, aids in effective
separation.
● Pumparound streams, withdrawn and cooled before return, help condense rising vapors,
improving thermal efficiency and reducing furnace duty and column size.
● Excessive pumparound streams can disrupt fractionation by mixing more and less
fractionated liquids.
● Side draw products are stripped to control boiling points, utilizing steam in strippers with
several trays.
● Overhead vapor condenses into light straight run naphtha, part of which is returned as
external reflux, while other products like heavy straight run naphtha, kerosene, LGO, and
HGO are withdrawn above the feed tray.
● The main column is equipped with 30–50 valve trays.

Vacuum Distillation of Crude Oil

Process:

Vacuum distillation is a refining process used to extract additional distillates from the
atmospheric residue obtained from the crude distillation unit. The key steps and components
involved in the process are as follows:

1. Feed Preparation: The atmospheric residue from the crude distillation unit is sent to the
vacuum distillation unit. The distillates obtained from the vacuum unit are classified as
light vacuum gas oil (LVGO), medium vacuum gas oil (MVGO), heavy vacuum gas oil
(HVGO), and vacuum residue.
2. Preparation for Downstream Processes: If the distillates are to be fed into downstream
conversion processes, their sulfur, metal, and asphaltene content need to be reduced
through hydrotreating or hydroprocessing. Some refineries may choose to hydroprocess
the entire atmospheric residue before vacuum distillation.
3. Temperature Control: The atmospheric residue can be directly sent to the vacuum unit
after heat extraction in the crude preheat exchangers. Alternatively, if it is sent to storage,
the temperature should not fall below 150°C (300°F) to maintain proper viscosity for
flow.
4. Heating: The atmospheric residue is heated in several exchangers using hot products and
pumparounds from the vacuum unit. Final heating to temperatures between 380–415°C
 (716–779°F) is achieved in a fired heater. Steam is injected into the heater tube passes to
minimize thermal cracking and coking.
5. Introduction to the Vacuum Tower: The heated feed enters the vacuum tower at the lower
part of the column. Similar to atmospheric distillation, a 3–5 vol% overflash is
maintained to provide fractionation between the HVGO draw-off tray and the flash zone,
controlling the end point.
6. Fractionation and Heat Exchange: Vacuum distillation columns are equipped with
packing for fractionation and heat exchange zones to reduce pressure drop in the column.
The bottom zone is equipped with valve trays. Vapors from the flash zone go through a
wash and fractionation zone where heavy ends are condensed with HVGO reflux.
7. Vapor Phase Handling: The vapors from the flash zone are handled using ejectors or a
combination of ejectors and liquid ring pumps to create the vacuum. Ejectors suck vapors
into the venturi section using medium or low-pressure steam, partially condensing the
vapor phase in an exchanger with cooling water before sending the liquid phase to the
overhead drum.
8. Liquid Ring Pumps: Liquid ring pumps, similar to rotor gas compressors, can replace
ejectors and significantly reduce hydrocarbon-rich aqueous condensates. While ejectors
are more flexible and rapid to deploy, liquid ring pumps require higher investments but
offer reduced steam consumption and lower installation costs.

Summary

● Vacuum distillation unit processes atmospheric residue from the crude distillation unit.
● Distillates from the vacuum unit include light vacuum gas oil (LVGO), medium vacuum
gas oil (MVGO), heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO), and vacuum residue.
● Distillates may require hydrotreating or hydroprocessing to reduce sulfur, metal, and
asphaltene content before downstream conversion.
● Some refineries hydroprocess the entire atmospheric residue before vacuum distillation.
● Vacuum units can also produce lubrication oil grade feedstocks depending on crude oil
quality.
● The vacuum distillation unit flow diagram involves heating the atmospheric residue in
exchangers and a fired heater to temperatures of 380–415°C (716–779°F) with steam
injection to minimize thermal cracking and coking.
● The feed enters the vacuum tower at the lower part, maintaining a 3–5 vol% overflash for
fractionation between HVGO draw-off tray and flash zone.
● Distillates are withdrawn as LVGO, MVGO, and HVGO to extract heat more efficiently.
● Vacuum distillation columns have packing for fractionation and heat exchange zones to
reduce pressure drop, with valve trays in the bottom zone.
● Vapors from the flash zone go through wash and fractionation zones, condensing heavy
ends with HVGO reflux.
 ● The system for creating vacuum in vacuum distillation units can use ejectors or liquid
ring pumps, with ejectors being more flexible and quicker to deploy, while liquid ring
pumps reduce steam consumption and installation costs.

Coking
The coking process produces electrode quality coke from vacuum residues of good quality (low
metal and sulfur contents) or coke for fuel in the case of heavy crude or vacuum residue
conversion having high impurity levels.

Available processes are:

● delayed coking to produce either electrode quality coke, or coke for fuel
● fluid coking producing only the coke destined for combustion or gasification

Liquid products from coking are very unstable (high diene contents), very olefinic, and highly
contaminated by sulfur and nitrogen. The production of gas is considerable.

Liquid products must undergo hydrogen processing before joining equivalent crude oil fractions
and continuing the normal process property improvement steps.
 ● Coke can be formed from the condensation of polynuclear aromatics (such as
n-butylnapthalene)

Coking and visbreaking are two processes used in petroleum refining to modify the properties of
heavy hydrocarbons, such as reducing viscosity and increasing the yield of lighter products.

1. Visbreaking:
○ Process: Visbreaking, or viscosity breaking, involves mild heating of heavy
hydrocarbons to reduce their viscosity. It's a thermal cracking process but milder
than other cracking processes like catalytic cracking.
○ Conditions: Typically conducted at temperatures ranging from 471–493°C
(880–920°F) and pressures between 50–200 psig (pounds per square inch gauge).
○ Objective: The primary goal is to reduce the viscosity of fuel oil, making it easier
to handle and process.
○ Conversion: Visbreaking achieves low conversion rates, usually around 10%, at
temperatures around 221°C (430°F).
○ Equipment: Visbreaking can be performed in a heated coil or a soaking drum
where heavy hydrocarbons are heated and held for a specific duration.
 ○ Result: The process yields lighter hydrocarbons and reduces the viscosity of the
feedstock.
2. Delayed Coking:
○ Process: Delayed coking involves the moderate to severe heating of heavy
hydrocarbons to induce thermal cracking and produce lighter products along with
coke.
○ Conditions: Conducted at temperatures ranging from 482–516°C (900–960°F)
and pressures around 90 psig.
○ Soak Drums: Involves heating heavy hydrocarbons in soak drums at
temperatures between 452–482°C (845–900°F) until they are full of coke.
○ Coke Removal: Coke, a solid carbonaceous material, is removed from the soak
drums hydraulically once they are full.
○ Coke Yield: Typically, delayed coking processes yield around 30% by weight of
coke.
○ Purpose: Delayed coking is used to upgrade heavy residual oils, converting them
into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline, diesel, and gas oils.
3. Fluid Coking and Flexicoking:
○ Process: Fluid coking and flexicoking are advanced forms of delayed coking
where severe heating is employed in a fluidized bed with steam to increase yields
of lighter products and reduce coke production.
○ Conditions: Conducted at temperatures ranging from 482–566°C (900–1050°F)
and low pressures around 10 psig.
○ Fluidized Bed: Hydrocarbons are heated in a fluidized bed with the injection of
steam, allowing for better mixing and cracking reactions.
○ Coke Yield: Fluid coking typically yields around 20% coke, while flexicoking
yields as little as 2% coke.
○ Purpose: These processes are utilized to maximize the production of valuable
light hydrocarbons while minimizing coke formation. They are particularly useful
for upgrading heavy feedstocks into more valuable products.

Various conversion processes

used in refining and petrochemical industries to alter the properties of hydrocarbons. These
processes can be broadly categorized into three groups:

1. Processes for the Improvement of Properties:

○ Molecular Rearrangement: These processes involve rearranging the molecular
structure of hydrocarbons.
■ Catalytic Reforming: Converts low-octane naphtha into high-octane
gasoline components by rearranging hydrocarbon molecules.
■ Isomerization: Converts straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-chain
isomers, improving their octane rating and stability.
 ○ Using Co-Reactants: These processes involve the use of co-reactants to modify
hydrocarbon molecules.
■ Alkylation: Combines smaller molecules like olefins and isobutane to
produce larger, high-octane gasoline components.
■ Ether Synthesis: Involves the reaction of alcohols with olefins or other
alcohols to form ethers, which are useful as fuel additives or solvents.
■ Oligomerization: Converts light olefins into higher molecular weight
compounds, such as gasoline or lubricating oil components.
2. Conversion Processes:
○ Thermal Processes: These processes involve heating hydrocarbons to induce
molecular changes.
■ Visbreaking: Mild heating of heavy hydrocarbons to reduce viscosity and
improve flow properties.
■ Coking: Moderate to severe heating of heavy hydrocarbons to produce
lighter products and solid coke residue.
○ Catalytic Processes: These processes involve the use of catalysts to facilitate
hydrocarbon conversion reactions.
■ Catalytic Cracking: Breaks down heavy hydrocarbons into lighter
products like gasoline and diesel.
■ Steam Reforming: Converts hydrocarbons into hydrogen and carbon
monoxide for various chemical processes.
■ Hydroconversion: Catalytic process involving hydrogen to upgrade
heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products.
3. Finishing Processes:
○ Hydrotreatment/Hydrogenation: These processes involve treating hydrocarbons
with hydrogen under high pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst.
○ Sweetening: Removes sulfur compounds from hydrocarbons, typically using
hydrogenation or other chemical processes, to improve product quality and meet
environmental regulations.