MODULE 2

PROBLEMS AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes
these problems are straightforward, sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are more
complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a
report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must
be sent overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What
should you do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the
problem.
Therefore, a problem is a gap between where you are and where you would like to be.” There
are different perspectives on the definition and nature of problems, as well as different types
of problems. Practicing different problem-solving strategies can help professionals develop
efficient solutions to challenges they encounter at work and in their everyday lives. Each
industry, business and career has its own unique challenges, which means employees may
implement different strategies to solve them. If you are interested in learning how to solve
problems more effectively, then understanding how to implement several common problem-
solving strategies may benefit you.

Problem solving is defined as “knowing what to do when you don’t know what to do”.
When people are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a
broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must
first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied,
hopefully resulting in a solution.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan used to find a solution or overcome a challenge. Different

strategies have different action plans associated with them. For example, a well-known strategy
is trial and error. Each problem-solving strategy includes multiple steps to provide you with
helpful guidelines on how to resolve a business problem or industry challenge. Effective
problem-solving requires you to identify the problem, select the right process to approach it
and follow a plan tailored to the specific issue you are trying to solve.

Problems themselves can be classified into two different categories known as ill-defined and
well-defined problems. Ill-defined problems represent issues that do not have clear goals,
solution paths, or expected solutions whereas well-defined problems have specific goals,
clearly defined solutions, and clear expected solutions. Problem solving often incorporates
logical reasoning and interpretation of meanings behind the problem, and also in many cases
require abstract thinking and creativity in order to find novel solutions. Various methods of
studying problem solving exist including introspection, simulation, computer modelling, and
experimentation.
Understanding how a variety of problem-solving strategies work is important because different
problems typically require you to approach them in different ways to find the best solution. By
mastering several problem-solving strategies, you can more effectively select the right plan of
action when faced with challenges in the future. This can help you solve problems faster and
develop stronger critical thinking skills.

PROBLEM SOLVING STEPS

Step 1: Realize and acknowledge that you are having a problem; The moment you experience a
problem you must stop and think. If you’re not as motivated as you used to be it may be an
indication that you are having a problem
Step 2: Identify the root of the problem and then define the problem; Identify essential
elements of the problem Define the problem
“A problem well-stated is a problem half-solved”.
Step 3: Transform the problem into a goal
• Select relevant and enough information to solve the problem
Step 4: Generate and evaluate potential solutions
Ask yourself what you have done in the past to solve the problem
Brainstorming rules
1. Think of lots of ideas
2. Use your imagination
3. Write down all ideas Don’t criticise
5. Improve or build on other people’s ideas
6. After all ideas have been exhausted only then indistinct ideas may be clarified

Step 5: Prioritize the different solutions

There is always something that may affect a solution like the timeframe, money, people,
procedures, policies and rules and regulations etc.

Step 6: Implement the solution

Having chosen the best solution, you need to make a step-by-step plan to make it work

Step 7: Assess and evaluate whether the problem has been solved
It’s always important to assess after implementing your solution whether the problem was
solved and if not, what the reasons were.
If the plan did not work:
• Determine what and why it did not work.
• What can you do different to let it work

Problem-solving Strategies
1.1 Trial and Error
A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different
solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option
if you have a very limited number of options available. In terms of a broken printer for
example, one could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could
check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually
connected to a laptop. When using trial and error, one would continue to try different
solutions until the problem is solved. Although trial and error is not typically one of
the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

1.2 Algorithm and Heuristic

A common type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving
formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired
outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly
detailed instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed.
Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer science.
When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to
decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses
algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other
situations in which algorithms are used?

A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be

followed exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving
framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts
that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such
a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time
-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational
decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the
impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis,
1989):
 When one is faced with too much information
 When the time to make a decision is limited
 When the decision to be made is unimportant
 When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
 When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by
focusing on the end result. It is common to use the working backwards heuristic to
plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about
it.
Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by
breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to
complete a large research project or long essay for school. For example, students
typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic,
organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the
rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their
work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when
it is broken down into a series of small steps.

1.3 Means-Ends Analysis

This strategy involves choosing and analyzing an action at a series of smaller steps
to move closer to the goal. One example of means-end analysis can be found by
using the Tower of Hanoi paradigm. This paradigm can be modelled as a word
problem.

The actual Tower of Hanoi problem consists of three rods sitting vertically on a base
with a number of disks of different sizes that can slide onto any rod. The puzzle
starts with the disks in a neat stack in ascending order of size on one rod, the
smallest at the top making a conical shape. The objective of the puzzle is to move
the entire stack to another rod obeying the following rules:
1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.
 2. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and
placing it on top of another stack or on an empty rod.
3. No larger disc may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

With 3 disks, the puzzle can be solved in 7 moves. The minimal moves required to
n
solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2 – 1, where 𝑛 is the number of disks. For example,
if there were 14 disks in the tower, the minimum amount of moves that could be made
14
to solve the puzzle would be 2 – 1 = 16,383 moves. There are various ways of
approaching the Tower of Hanoi or its related problems in addition to the
approaches listed above including an iterative solution, recursive solution, non-
recursive solution, a binary and Gray-code solutions, and graphical representations.

An iterative solution entails moving the smallest pieces over one, then moving the
next over one and if there is no tower position in the chosen direction you are moving
to, move the pieces to the opposite end, but then continue to move in the same
direction. By doing this one will complete the puzzle in the minimum amount of
moves when there are 3 disks. Recursive solutions represent recognizing that the
puzzle can be broken down into a series of sub problems to each of which the
same general solving procedures apply, and then the total solution can be found by
putting together the sub solutions. Non-recursive solutions entail recognizing that
the procedures required to solve the problem have many regularities such as when
counting the moves starting at 1, position of the disk in the series to be moved
during move 𝑚 represents the number of times 𝑚 can be divided by 2 which
indicates that every odd move involves the smallest disk. This allows for the
following algorithm:
1) Move the smallest disk to the peg that it has not recently come from.
2) Move another disk legally (there will only be one possibility).
A binary and Gray solutions describe disk move numbers in binary notation (base-2)
where there is only one binary digit (a bit) for each disk and the most significant
(leftmost bit) represents the largest disk. A bit with a different value to the previous one
means that the corresponding disk is one position to the left or right of the previous one.
Graphical representations, as their name imply, represent visual presentations of
conditions that can be modelled in order to view the most efficient and effective
solutions. A common graph for the Tower of Hanoi is represented by a unidirectional,
pyramid shaped graph, where different nodes (pieces within each level of the graph)
represent distributions of disks and the edges represent moves, as shown below.
 Figure 1-1: Graphical representation of nodes (circles) and moves (lines) of
Tower of Hanoi.

Table 1-1: Commonly Used Problem-Solving Strategies

Method Description Example

Trial and error Continue trying Restarting phone, turning
different solutions off WiFi, turning off
until problem is solved Bluetooth in order to
determine why your phone
is
malfunctioning
Algorithm Step-by-step Instruction manual for
problem- solving installing new software on
formula your computer
Heuristic General problem- Working backwards;
solving framework breaking a task into steps
Means-ends analysis Analysing a problem at Envisioning the ultimate
series of smaller steps to goal and determining the
move closer to the goal best strategy for attaining
it
in the current situation
1.4 Other Problem-solving Strategies
Here are some examples of problem-solving strategies that may equally be adopted to
see which works best for you in different situations:
i. Use past experience
Take the time to consider if you have encountered a similar situation to your current
problem in the past. This can help draw connections between different events. Ask
yourself how you approached the previous situation and adapt those solutions to the
problem currently being solved. For example, a company trying to market a new clothing
line may consider marketing tactics they have previously used, such as magazine
advertisements, influencer campaigns or social media advertisements. By analysing
what tactics have worked in the past, they can create a successful marketing campaign
again.

ii. Bring in a facilitator

If one is trying to solve a complex problem with a group of other people, bringing in a
facilitator can help increase efficiency and mediate collaboration. Having an impartial
third party can help a group stay on task, document the process and have a more
meaningful conversation. Consider inviting a facilitator to your next group meeting to
help generate better solutions.
 iii. Develop a decision matrix for evaluation
If multiple solutions are developed for a problem, one may need to determine which one
is the best. A decision matrix can be an excellent tool to help you approach this task
because it allows you to rank potential solutions. Some factors you can analyse when
ranking each potential solution are:
 Timeliness
 Risk
 Manageability
 Expense
 Practicality
 Effectiveness
After having decided which factors to include, use them to rank each potential solution
by assigning a weighted value of 0 to 10 in each of these areas. For example, one
solution may receive a score of 10 in the timeliness factor because it meets all the
requirements, while another solution may only receive a seven. Having ranked each of
the potential solutions based on these factors, add up the total number of points each
solution received. The solution with the highest number of points should meet the most
important criteria.

iv. Ask your peers for help

Getting opinions from peers can expose new perspectives and unique solutions. Friends,
families or colleagues may have different experiences, ideas and skills that may
contribute to finding the best solution to a problem. Consider asking a diverse range of
colleagues or peers to share what they would do if they were in your situation. Even if
you don't end up taking one of their suggestions, the conversation may help you process
your ideas and arrive at a new solution.

v.Step away from the problem

Finally, if the problem being worked on does not need an immediate solution, consider
stepping away from it for a short period of time. You can do this literally by taking a
walk to help clear your mind or figuratively by setting the problem aside for a few days
until you are ready to approach it again. Allowing yourself time to rest, exercise and take
care of your own well-being can make solving the problem easier when you come back to
it because you may feel energised and focused.