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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

Department of Computer and Information Sciences

CSC 227
Computer Architecture and Organization I

MODULE 2: DATA REPRESENTATION

 Review of Module1
(General Introduction)

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 MODULE 2
(DATA REPRESENTATION)

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 Introduction
• Computers are built of electronic circuitry. Information is
represented by currents, voltage differences, or (for permanent
storage) orientation of magnetic material. A single electronic circuit
or piece of magnetic material is often regarded as being in one of
two states, so can be used to represent a binary digit. Thus numbers
are usually represented within a computer in base 2.

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• It is possible to represent an integer in any base. A digit sequence
an-1 an-2 …….... a2 a1 a0
represents the integer
an-1 * basen-1 +an-2 * basen-2 + ... + a2 * base2+ a1 * base1 + a0 *
base0
• Although data is stored within the computer in binary, it is often
convenient to display the information in hexadecimal (base 16),
because it takes up less space on the page, and is easier to
remember.

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Base Conversion
• Conversion from decimal to any base
To convert an integer into a digit string in a base, we repeatedly
divide the number by the base. The digits correspond to the
remainders of these divisions, and are generated from right to left.
• The following program sequence can be used to achieve this (next
slide).

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• static char toDigit( int n ) {
if ( n < 10 )
‒ return ( char ) ( n + '0' );
else
‒ return ( char ) ( n + 'a' - 10 );
}
• static String toBase( int n, int base ) {
if ( n == 0 )
‒ return "0";
else if ( n < 0 )
‒ return "-" + toBase( - n, base );
else {
‒ String result = "";
while ( n > 0 ) {
result = toDigit( n % base ) + result;
‒ n = n / base;
}
‒ return result;
}
• }

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Example
• To convert the decimal number 13 into binary, we get
13 / 2 = quotient 6 remainder 1
6 / 2 = quotient 3 remainder 0
3 / 2 = quotient 1 remainder 1
1 / 2 = quotient 0 remainder 1
So writing the remainders from right to left (or bottom to top),
we get 1101.

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Conversion from a base into decimal form
• To convert from a digit string in a base to an integer is like
evaluating a polynomial. We just process the digits from left to
right, multiply what we have so far by the base, and add the next
digit
• The following program sequence can be used to achieved this

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• static int fromDigit( char c ) {
if ( '0' <= c && c <= '9' )
‒ return c - '0';
else if ( 'a' <= c && c <= 'z' ) // Allow up to base 36
‒ return c - 'a' + 10;
else if ( 'A' <= c && c <= 'Z' )
‒ return c - 'A' + 10;
else
‒ throw new Error( "Invalid digit" );
• static int fromBase( String s, int base ) {
‒ int sign = 1;
if ( s.charAt( 0 ) == '-' ) {
‒ sign = -1;
‒ s = s.substring( 1 );
}
‒ int result = 0;
for ( int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++ )
‒ result = result * base + fromDigit( s.charAt( i ) );
‒ return sign * result;
}

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Example
• For example, to convert the binary representation 1101 into
decimal, we get
0*2+1=1
1*2+1=3
3*2+0=6
6 * 2 + 1 = 13
giving the number 13 (in decimal).
• The arithmetic in the above computations can be performed in any
base you like.
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Conversion between binary and hexadecimal
• Conversion between binary and hexadecimal is almost trivial, since it
amounts to grouping or ungrouping bits into sets of four.
• For example, using our conversion table, hexadecimal 3fc is 0011 1111
1100.
• Example:
Find the Hexadecimal representation of 110101101011101
110 1011 0101 1101
6D=6H 11D=BH 5D=5H 13D=CH
(110101101011101)B=(6B5C)H

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• Example:
(A34E)H=
(A x 163)+(3 x 162)+(4 x 161)+(E x 160)=
(Ax4096)+(3x 256)+(4x 16)+(E x 1)=
(10x4096)+(3x 256)+(4x 16)+(14 x 1)=
40960+768+64+14=4180610
(A34E)H = 1010 0011 0100 11102

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• We can also multiply or divide a binary or hexadecimal number by 2.
• If the number is binary, we simply shift the digits left or right by one
place.
• For numbers in hexadecimal, we can decode the hexadecimal digits
into binary, perform the shift, then encode them again.
• For example, to compute 3fc / 2, we decode 3fc as 0011 1111 1100,
shift the bits right by 1, to get 0001 1111 1110, and encode it again to
get 1fe.
• To compute 3fc * 2, we decode 3fc as 0011 1111 1100, shift the bits
left by 1, to get 0111 1111 1000, and encode it again to get 7f8.

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REPRESENTATION OF SIGNED & UNSIGNED
NUMBERS

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Introduction

• Computers operate on binary values (as a result of being built from

transistors).
• There are 4 commonly known integer representations. All have been
used at various times for various reasons.
1. unsigned
2. sign magnitude
3. one's complement
4. two's complement

• We shall also consider non-integer representations and others later.

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• Virtually all modern computers operate based on 2's complement
representation. Why?
1. Hardware is faster
2. Hardware is simpler (which makes it faster)

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 UNSIGNED
• The standard binary encoding already given only positive values
• range: 0 to 2**n - 1, for n bits
• example: 4 bits, values 0 to 15
• n=4, 2**4 -1 is 15
• binary dec hex binary dec hex
• 0000 0 0 1000 8 8
• 0001 1 1 1001 9 9
• 0010 2 2 1010 10 a
• 0011 3 3 1011 11 b
• 0100 4 4 1100 12 c
• 0101 5 5 1101 13 d
• 0110 6 6 1110 14 e
• 0111 7 7 1111 15 f

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 NEGATIVE NUMBER REPRESENTATION
• Negative numbers are essential, and any computer not capable of
dealing with them would not be particularly useful.
• How can such numbers be represented?
• Several methods can be used to represent negative numbers in
Binary.
• They include:
▪ Sign-Magnitude Method
▪ One (1’s) Complement
▪ Two (2’s) Complement

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 SIGN MAGNITUDE
• Use 1 bit of integer to represent the sign of the integer
• Sign bit of 0 for positive, 1 for negative.
• The rest of the integer is a magnitude, using same encoding as unsigned
integers
• The hardware that does arithmetic on sign magnitude integers is not fast.
• It is more complex than the hardware that does arithmetic on 1's comp.
and 2's comp. integers.

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Example
• Write 74 and -43 using 8-bit register in sign-magnitude representation.
• Solution:
▪ 74 in binary = ????????2

▪ For -43, first find +43 in binary and then flip the last bit (sign bit)
▪ 38 in binary = ????????2
▪ -38 in binary = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 02

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• Example: 4 bits
0101 is 5
1101 is -5
• To get the additive inverse of a number, just flip (not, invert, complement,
negate) the sign bit.
• range: -(2**(n-1)) + 1 to 2**(n-1) -1, where n is the number
of bits

With 4 bits, -7 to +7
n = 4, - 2**3 + 1 to 2**3 - 1
-8 + 1 to 8-1

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 Problem of Sign-Magnitude
• Because of the sign bit, there are 2 representations for 0. This is a problem for
hardware.
• 0000 is 0 and so is 1000. The computer must do all calculations such that they
come out correctly and the same whichever representation is used.
• Sign reversal and absolute value operations are easy using sign-magnitude
representation.
• Adding the negative of a number is not the same as subtraction in sign-
magnitude. Different operations must be defined for addition and subtraction
with sign-magnitude numbers.

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 1’s Complement Representation
• Another method used in representing negative numbers.
• The ones' complement form of a negative binary number is the bitwise NOT
applied to it — the "complement" of its positive counterpart.
• i.e. Negation (finding an additive inverse) is done by taking a bitwise
complement of the positive representation.
• Like sign-and-magnitude representation, ones' complement has two
representations of 0:
00000000 (+0) and 11111111 (−0).
• positive integers use the same representation as unsigned.

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 Example
• As an example, the ones' complement form of 00101011 (4310) becomes
11010100 (−4310).
• What number in 1’s complement is 11100?
• This must be a negative number. To find out which, find the additive
inverse! 00011 is +3 by sight, so 11100 must be -3
• The range of signed numbers using ones' complement is represented by
−(2N−1−1) to (2N−1−1) and ±0.
• A conventional 8-bit range is −12710 to +12710
• Zero is either 00000000 (+0) or 11111111 (−0).

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 1’s Complement (Cont’d)
• To add two numbers represented in this system, one does a conventional
binary addition, but it is then necessary to do an end-around carry: that is,
add any resulting carry back into the resulting sum.
• To see why this is necessary, consider the following example showing the case
of the addition of −1 (11111110) to +2 (00000010).

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• In the previous example, the binary addition alone gives 00000000, which is
incorrect. Only when the carry is added back in does the correct result
(00000001) appear.

• This numeric representation system was common in older computers like the
PDP-1, CDC 160 series, and UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, among many others.

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 1’s Complement (Cont’d)
Note:
• The system is referred to as "ones' complement" because the negation of a
positive value x (represented as the bitwise NOT of x) can also be formed by
subtracting x from the ones' complement representation of zero that is a long
sequence of ones (−0).

• Note that the ones' complement representation of a negative number can be

obtained from the sign-magnitude representation merely by bitwise
complementing the magnitude.

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Two’s Complement Representation
• This solves the problems of multiple representations of 0 and the need
for the end-around carry.
• In 2's complement, negative numbers are represented by the bit
pattern which is one greater (in an unsigned sense) than the ones'
complement of the positive value.
• How to find the 2’s Complement of a number: A Quick Method
Suppose we want to find the two’s complement of 6-bit
representation of -14.

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• (1.) First, we write down the positive binary number, in this case 14 (001110)
• (2.) Now, start writing the digits from the right hand side up to and including the
first 1. In our case, just 10.
• (3.) Then invert the rest of the digits. So our answer becomes 110010.
• Examples:
• Two’s complement 8-bit representation of the following:
1. +24 = 00011000
2. +127 = 01111111
3. -39 = 11011001
4. -92 = 10100100
5. -128 = 10000000

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• EXAMPLE:
• What decimal value does the two's complement 110011 represent?
• It must be a negative number, since the most significant bit is a 1. Therefore,
find the additive inverse:
• 110011 (2's comp. ?)
• 001100 (after taking the 1's complement)
• +1
• -----------
• 001101 (2's comp. +13)
• Therefore, it's additive inverse (110011) must be -13.

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QUIZ BASED ON LAST LECTURE

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ATTEMPT ALL QUESTIONS – 10 MINUTES
1. Briefly describe how negative integers are formed using S-M, 1’s &
2’s complement.

2. What does the value 1111001112 represent in S-M, 1’s and 2’s
complement.

3. Perform the following unsigned operation in 2’s complement

using 6 bits 47 + 35 = ? What value will be stored in register?

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 Overflow
• Sometimes a value cannot be represented in the limited number of bits
allowed.
• Examples:
• For unsigned, 3 bits: 8 would require at least 4 bits (1000)
• For S-M, 4 bits: 8 would require at least 5 bits (01000)
• When a value cannot be represented in the number of bits
allowed/specified, we say that an overflow has occurred. Overflow
occurs when doing arithmetic operations.

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Overflow Example
• 3 bit unsigned representation
• 011 (3)
• +110 (6)
• ------------
• 1 001 (9)
• It would require 4 bits (1001) to represent the value 9 in
unsigned representation.
• This will lead to overflow.

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Underflow
• Overflow is a situation in which the exponent is too large to be represented in
the Exponent field while Underflow is a situation in which the number is too
small to be represented in the Exponent field.

• Arithmetic underflow can occur when the true result of a floating point
operation is smaller in magnitude (that is, closer to zero) than the smallest
value representable as a normal floating point number in the target datatype.

• Underflow can in part be regarded as negative overflow of the exponent of the

floating point value. For example, if the exponent part can represent values from
−127 to 127, then a result with a value less than −127 may cause underflow.

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 Solving Overflow/Underflow Problem
• To reduce the chances of underflow/overflow, can use 64-bit
Double-Precision arithmetic.
• The following slides describe some devastating effects of wrong
arithmetic in computer programs.

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• On June 4, 1996 an unmanned Ariane 5 rocket launched
by the European Space Agency exploded just forty
seconds after lift-off. The rocket was on its first voyage,
after a decade of development costing $7 billion. The
cause was a software error. A 64 bit floating point
number relating to the horizontal velocity of the rocket
wrt the platform was converted to a 16 bit signed integer.
The number was larger than 32678, the largest integer
storeable in a 16 bit signed integer, and thus the
conversion failed.

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 Vancouver Stock Exchange
• In 1982 the Vancouver stock exchange instituted a new index
initialized to a value of 1000.000. The index was updated after each
transaction. Twenty two months later it had fallen to 520. The cause
was that the updated value was truncated rather than rounded. The
rounded calculation gave a value of 1098.892.

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 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
• A type of binary code used to represent a given decimal
number in an equivalent binary form.
• Main advantage:- it allows easy conversion to decimal
digits for printing or display and faster calculations.
• 3 different types:
▪ 8421
▪ 5421
▪ 4221

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BCD Code Chart

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• The numbers 8,4,2,1 in 8421 BCD, 4, 2, 2, 1 in 4221 BCD and 5, 4, 2 and
1 in 5421 BCD represent weights of the relevant bits.
• BCD is a weighted code, each binary digit in the four bit group representing
a given decimal digit is assigned a weight,
• Sum of the weights of those binary digits whose value is 1 is equal to the
decimal digit which they represent.
• Example:
• The 8421 BCD code for 9.2 is 1001.0010.
• The 4221 BCD code for 9.2 is 1111.0010.
• The 5421 BCD code for 9.2 is 1100.0010.
• BCD code is useful for outputting to displays that are always numeric (0 to 9),
such as those found in digital clocks or digital voltmeters.

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 Excess-3 Code
• Excess-3, also called XS3, is a non-weighted code used to express
decimal numbers.
• It is another important binary code.
• It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it overcomes
the shortcomings encountered while using the 8421 BCD code to
add two decimal digits whose sum exceeds 9.
• This code is used in some old computers.

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 Excess-3 (Cont’d)
• The Excess-3 code for a given decimal number is determined by
adding '3' to each decimal digit in the given number and then
replacing each digit of the newly found decimal number by its four
bit binary equivalent.
• Example, XS3 code of 24 is obtained as
• 2 4
• +3 +3
• 5 7
• 0101 0111
• Thus, XS3 code of 24 is 0101 0111.
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Excess-3 (Cont’d)
• Excess-3 code is self-complementing.
• That is , the 1's complement of an Excess- 3 number is the Excess- 3 code for the 9's
complement of the corresponding decimal number.
• For example, the Excess- 3 code for decimal 6 is 1001. The 1's complement of 1001 is
0110, which is the Excess-3 code for decimal 3, and 3 is the 9's complement of 6.
• This property of Excess-3 code makes it useful in some arithmetic operations.
• Example:
• The Excess-3 code for 27 is 01011010.
• Similarly, Excess-3 code for (597)10 and (14.57)10 is
• (597)10 = (100011001010)
• (14.57)10 = (01000111.10001010)

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 Convert from Excess-3 to Decimal

Example:
• To determine the decimal equivalent for the Excess-3 code 1000110.
• First make group of 4 bits starting from radix point (LSB).
• Subtract 0011 (3) from each group, we obtain the new number as 00010011.
• Its decimal equivalent is 13.
• Therefore, (1000110) Excess-3= (13)10
• Class Work: 1011011011sx3 = ?10

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Representation of Floating Point Numbers
• A range of very large and very small numbers can be represented with only a
few digits by using scientific notation. For example:
▪ 976,000,000,000,000 = 9.76 * 1014
▪ 0.0000000000000976 = 9.76 * 10-14
• This same approach can be used for binary numbers. A number represented by
M*B±E can be stored in a binary word with three fields:

▪ Mantissa
▪ Exponent E
▪ The base B is implicit and need not be stored.

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Floating Point – Single Precision
▪ IEEE-754, 854 is a standard for representing FP
▪ Decimal point can “move” – hence it’s “floating”
▪ Floating point is useful for scientific calculations
▪ Can represent
‒ Very large integers and
‒ Very small fractions
‒ ~10±38

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 Floating Point – Single Precision
32 bits
S E  M

Sign of
number : 8-bit signed 23-bit
0 signifies + exponent in mantissa fraction
1 signifies - excess-127
representation
E  - 127
Value represented = ± 1. M ´ 2

(a) Single precision

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 . . . 0


- 87
Value represented = 1.001010 0 ´ 2

(b) Example of a single-precision number

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Floating Point – Double Precision
▪ Double Precision can represent
‒ ~10±308

64 bits

S E  M

Sign
11-bit excess-1023 52-bit
exponent mantissa fraction

E  - 1023
Value represented = ± 1. M ´ 2

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Floating Point
▪ The IEEE Standard requires these operations, at a minimum
‒ Add
‒ Subtract
‒ Multiply
‒ Divide
‒ Remainder
‒ Square Root
‒ Decimal/Binary Conversion
▪ Exceptions
‒ Underflow, Overflow, divide by 0, inexact, invalid

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EXAMPLE: Put the decimal number 64.2 into the IEEE single precision representation.

• STEP 1:
▪ get a binary representation for 64.2
‒ 64 is 1000000
‒ .2 is :
• .2 x 2 = 0.4 0 (msb)
• .4 x 2 = 0.8 0
• .8 x 2 = 1.6 1
• .6 x 2 = 1.2 1
• .2 x 2 = 0.4 0
• now this whole pattern (0011) repeats.
• so the binary representation for .2 is .001100110011. . .
• Putting the halves back together again: 64.2 is 1000000.0011001100110011. . .

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• STEP 2: normalize the binary representation(make it look like scientific notation)
1.000000 00110011. . . x 26
• STEP 3:
▪ 6 is the true exponent.
▪ For the standard form, it needs to be in biased-127 form.
▪ 6 + 127 = 133 (value of biased exponent)
▪ 133 in 8 bit, unsigned representation is 1000 0101 this is bit pattern used for E in
the standard form.
▪ STEP 4:
▪ the mantissa stored (F) is to the right of the radix point in the normal form.
▪ We need 23 bits of it. 000000 00110011001100110 put it all together (and include
the correct sign bit)

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 S E F
0 10000101 00000000110011001100110
the values are often given in hex, so here it is
0100 0010 1000 0000 0110 0110 0110 0110
0x 4 2 8 0 6 6 6 6 or
42806666h
• Exercise: Represent the following in IEEE format
▪ 10.510
▪ 9.999 x 101 + 1.610 x 10-1
▪ .510 x -0.437510
▪ (1.10 x 1010) x (9.2 x 10-5)
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 ALPHANUMERIC CODES

• Earlier computers were used only for the purpose of calculations i.e. they
were only used as a calculating device.
• Computers now represent numbers and other information such as
names, addresses, item descriptions etc.
• Such information is represented using letters and symbols.
• Computer is a digital system and can only deal with 1's and 0’s.
• So to deal with letters and symbols they use alphanumeric codes.

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 Alphanumeric Code (Cont’d)
• Alphanumeric codes, also called character codes, are binary codes used to
represent alphanumeric data.
• The codes write alphanumeric data, including letters of the alphabet,
numbers, mathematical symbols and punctuation marks, in a form that is
understandable and process able by a computer.
• Using these codes, we can interface input-output devices such as keyboards,
monitors, printers etc. with computer.
• Examples include:
▪ Morse code
▪ Hollerith code
▪ ASCII code
▪ EBCDIC code
▪ Unicode

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Morse Code

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 ASCII Code
• ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.
▪ It's a 7-bit character code where every single bit represents a unique character.

• ASCII printable characters (character code 32-127)

▪ Codes 32-127 are common for all the different variations of the ASCII table, they are
called printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few
miscellaneous symbols.
▪ Character 127 represents the command DEL.

• The extended ASCII codes (character code 128-255)

▪ There are several different variations of the 8-bit ASCII table e.g. ISO 8859-1, also called
ISO Latin-1. Codes 129-159 contain the Microsoft® Windows Latin-1 extended characters.

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ASCII Code

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 EBCDIC

• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

(EBCDIC) is an 8-bit character encoding used mainly on IBM
mainframe and IBM midrange computer operating systems.

• EBCDIC descended from the code used with punched cards

and the corresponding 6-bit binary-coded decimal code used
with most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and
early 1960s.

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ASCII & EBCDIC

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Quiz 3- Answer All Questions – 10mins
• Determine the decimal value of the following hexadecimal value
represented using IEEE Single precision format.
BE7BAC10h
• Represent -82 using S-M, 1’s and 2’s Complement

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REPRESENTATION OF GRAPHICAL OBJECTS

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 REPRESENTATION OF GRAPHICAL OBJECTS
• 2 types of graphics can be represented
▪ Vector graphics
▪ Bitmap graphics
• Any graphic is made up from a series of pixels (Picture Elements).
• Each pixel is an individual point on the screen

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 BITMAP GRAPHICS
• Assuming only black and white (1 or 0) for each pixel the image
below would be stored as shown

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 Bitmap - Resolution
•The quality of the image depends on the number of pixels
•More pixels means higher resolution and clearer image

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 Memory Storage for Graphical Object
• The image below is 4 inches x 6 inches. The resolution is 300 d.p.i. (dots per
linear inch) and the image is black and white. Calculate the memory
requirements
Length: 6x300 = 1800 pixels
Breadth: 4x300 = 1200 pixels
Total no pixels = 1800 x 1200
= 2,160,000 pixels
(1 or 0) means 1 bit per pixel
Storage = 2,160,000 bits
= 270,000 bytes
= 263.4 KBytes
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Vector Graphics
• Each Image is made from objects (line,rect,circle)
▪ Every object has ATTRIBUTES which define it
To draw the rectangle below we need to know:

Start X and Y coordinates

The length
The breadth
The thickness and colour of the lines
The type of line (dashed)
The fill colour

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 Vector vs Bit-Mapped Graphics
• Advantages of vector graphics (draw packages)

▪ Images can be enlarged without losing resolution

▪ Objects can be edited by changing their attributes
▪ Objects can be layered on top/behind
▪ Images take up less disc space
▪ Ideal for drawing plans; use library of objects

• Advantages of bit-mapped graphics (paint packages)

▪ Each pixel can be altered

▪ More realistic when used for photos/real life

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 HOME WORK
• Write '-89' in S-M, 1’s and 2’s Complements representations, using an 8-bit
register.
• Give the range of possible numbers which can be represented in a 16-bit register,
using the S-M method. i.e. from ……. to …..…
• What is the value of 101110112 in S-M, 1’s , 2’s Complement?
• Represent 23.510 in IEEE Single Precision format. Express your answer in
Hexadecimal (base 16).

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