1.

1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Definition: A computer is an electronic device or machine which accept data,
process the data using a set of instructions to produce information and store
the information for future use.
There are three points to note about this definition:
Computer is a machine: it consists of electronic and electro-mechanical parts
working together.These machine parts are referred to as computer hardware
Computer processes data:Essentially, a computer process data automatically.
A computer is controlled by a stored program: A program is a set of
instructions which tells the computer what to do.The general term used to
describe computer program is software.
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
The following are some of the characteristics of a computer:
Speed: Computer process data at an extremely fast rate – millions of
instructions per second in few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task
that a normal human being may take days or even years to complete. The
speed of a computer is calculated in Mhz
Accuracy: Besides efficiency, computer are accurate as well. The level of
accuracy depends an the instructions and the type of machine being used.
Diligence :Computer being a machine does not suffer form the human traits
of tiredness and lack of concentration
Reliability :Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer,
which is measured against some predetermined standard for operation
without any failure.
Storage capability: Ability to store and process large amounts of data.
Versatility: It can perform multiple tasks simultaneously with great ease. For
example, at one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it
can be used to play music and in between, one can print a document as well.
All this work is possible by changing the program.
Programmability: Ability to be instructed.
1.3 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or adding, people used
either their fingers or pebbles along lines in the sand.
In order to simplify the process of counting, people in Asia Minor built a
counting device called abacus. This device allowed users to do calculations
using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.
With the passage of time, many computing devices such as Napier bones and
slide rule were invented.
• In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented the first functional
automatic calculator. This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline,
used eight movable dios to adds sums eight figures long.
• In 1694, german mathematician Gottfried wilhem von Leibniz extended
pascal’s design to perform multiplication, division and to find square root.
This machine is known as Stepped Reckoner.
• The real beginnings of computers as we know them today, however, started
with an English professor, Charles Babbage. In 1822, he proposed a machine
to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine.
• In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for US census bureau, also applied
the Jacquard loom concept to computing. Hollerith’s method used cards to
store data, which he fed into a machine that compelled the results
mechanically.
Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM in
1944. This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic
components to replace mechanical components
• In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy of developed ENIAC (electronic
numerical integrator and calculator) Thus computer used electronic vacuum
tubes to make internal parts of the computer
• Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC ( electronic
discrete variable automatic computer. It was the first electronic computer to
use the stored program concept introduced by John von Neumann.
• In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed EDSAC
(electronic delay storage automatic calculator) This machine used mercury
delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic.
• The Eckert – mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal
automatic computer) in 1951 and its implementation marked the real
beginning of the computer era.
1..4 COMPUTER GENERATIONS
First Generation (1940-50) : First generation computer were vacuum
tubes/thermionic value based machines. these computers used vacuum
tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a
metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and
programs can be stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape
and output was in the form of printouts For example: ENIAC, EDVAC AND
UNIVAC.
Characteristics of First Generation Computers.
• These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
• These were the fastest computing devices of their time.
• These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
• These were non-portable and were very slow
Second Generations (1950-60): The second generation of computers saw the
introduction of transistors which marked a significant milestone in computer
design. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes .A transistor is made up of
semiconductor material like germanium and silicon since transistor is a small
device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced .Computers
became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their
predecessors. Magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic
disks as secondary storage devices. However, they still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output. For example: PDP – 8 , IBM 1401 and
IBM 7090
Characteristics of Second Generation Computer.
• These machines were based on transistor technology
• These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
• These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
Third Generation (1960-1970)
The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third
generation computer. Also called an IC, an integrated circuit consists of a
single chip with many components such as transistors and resistors
fabricated on it. Integrated circuit replaced several individually wired
transistor. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with
operating system. For example : NCR 395 and B6500 Characteristic of Third
Generation Computer
• These computers were based on integrated circuit (ic) technology.
• They were able to reduce computational time from micro seconds to nano
seconds. • Extensive use of high – level language became possible
Fourth Generation : The fourth generation computers saw the limelight of
large scale integration (LSI) and very large scale integration (VLSI)
technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be
constructed on one small slice of silicon material whereas VLSI can
accommodate hundreds of thousands of components on to a single
computer.Computers in this generation became more powerful, compact,
reliable and affordable. For example: apple ii, attair 8800 and CRAY-1
Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers
• Fourth generation computers are microprocessor based systems
• These computers are very small
• Graphical user interface and the introduction of pointing devices enable
users to learn to use the computer quickly
•Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource
sharing Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence A
computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts the
starting point for the fifth generation of computers has been set in the early
1990. The expert system it defined as a computer information system that
attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in specific
areas three characteristics can be identified with the fifth generation
computer these are.
Mega chips: Fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated
(SLSI) chips, which will result in the production of microprocessor having
millions of electronic components on a single chip
Parallel processing: A computer using parallel processing accesses several
instructions at once and works on them at the same time through use of
multiple central processing units.
Artificial intelligence: (AI) AI comprises a group of related technologies expert
systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP) speech recognition, vision
recognition and robotics
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
 1) Classification according to functionality:
i) Analogue computers: Analogue computers are designed to process
analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously
and cannot have discrete values. . Analogue computers directly accept the
data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and
codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and
generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and
mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
ii) Digital Computer : A Digital computer is designed to perform calculations
and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the
form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs
stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like
laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are
digital computers.
The following are some of the advantages of a digital computer:
- It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily
whenever you need it.
-You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
-Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the
program without making any changes in hardware.
-It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
-Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.
iii) Hybrid Computer: A hybrid computer has features of both analogue and
digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer and has memory and
accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete
data. It accepts analogue signals and converts them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both
analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in
petrol pumps that convert the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and
price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.
The following are some of the advantages of using hybrid computers:
It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
It has the ability to solve and manage complex equations in real-time.
It helps in on-line data processing.
2) Classification according to size
Supercomputer : Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers.
They are designed to process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can
process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors. Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific
and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific
simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Some of the applications of supercomputers are listed below:
It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate
results in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analyzing data obtained
from exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and
other pollutants in the atmosphere.
ii) Mainframe computer : Mainframe computers are designed to support
hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for
big organizations like banking and telecommunication sectors, which need to
manage and process high volume of data. that requires integer operations
such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
Applications of mainframe computers:
-In health care, it gives room for hospitals to maintain a record of their
millions of patients in order to contact them for treatment or related to their
appointment, medicine updates or disease updates.
- In the field of defense, it allows the defense departments to share a large
amount of sensitive information with other branches of defense.
-In the educational sector, it helps universities to store, manage and retrieve
data related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and
affiliated schools and colleges.
-In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and
branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute information
related to their inventory management, customer management, and huge
transactions in a short duration. iii)Minicomputer: This is a midsize
multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can
support 4 to 200 users at one time. A minicomputer lies between the
mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than
a microcomputer.They are able to process trillions of instructions per second.
The main purpose of the mini computer is to fulfill the computing needs for
several people from small to medium-sized business environment.
Applications of minicomputers: A minicomputer is mainly used to perform
three primary functions, which are as follows: Process control: It is used for
process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two primary functions
that is: collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the process,
it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
Microcomputer: A microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It
is a general-purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a
microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit
and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. It does not require the user to have special skills or training
to use it. Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip. It is capable of
multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.
3) Classification according to purpose

Computers can be classified based on their intended use or purpose.

1. General-purpose Computers:

-Definition: These computers are designed to perform a wide range of tasks,

such as word processing, gaming, browsing the web, and running various
software applications. Examples are: Personal computers (PCs), laptops,
tablets, and smartphones.

2. Special-purpose Computers:

- Definition: These computers are designed to perform specific tasks or

functions and are not meant for general computing. They are optimized for
particular applications. Examples: ATM machines: designed to process
financial transactions. Microwave ovens: Designed to control cooking settings
and heat food.
INTERNET, ITS APPLICATION AND ITS IMPACT
In the present age of Information Technology, use of internet is becoming
quite popular for accessing information on any topic of your interest. It also
provides tremendous opportunities to students, researchers and
professionals for getting information on matters related to academic and
professional topics and lot more. In the present world, most of the people
who have computers around themselves use Internet to access information
from the World Wide Web, exchange messages & documents and e-services.

INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use
the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/ IP) to serve billions of users
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global
scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast
range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext
documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support
electronic mail.
Uses of Internet
Internet has been the most useful technology of the modern times which
helps us not only in our daily lives, but also our personal and professional lives
developments. The internet helps us achieve this in several different ways.
For the students and educational purposes the internet is widely used to
gather information so as to do the research or add to the knowledge of
various subjects. Even the business professionals and the professionals like
doctors, access the internet to filter the necessary information for their use.
The internet is therefore the largest encyclopedia for everyone, in all age
categories. The internet has served to be more useful in maintaining contacts
with friends and relatives who live abroad permanently.
Advantages of Internet
Some of the advantages of using the internet are outlined below:
Information: Information is probably the biggest advantage internet is offering.
There is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about
every subject, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and
conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support. You can
almost find any type of data on almost any kind of subject that you are
looking for by using search engines like google, yahoo, msn, etc.
Services: Many services are provided on the internet like net banking, job
searching, purchasing tickets, hotel reservations, guidance services on array
of topics engulfing
every aspect of life.
E-commerce: Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also
shop online. There are many online stores and sites that can be used to look
for products as
well as buy them using your credit card. You do not need to leave your house
and can do all your shopping from the convenience of your home. It has got a
real amazing and a wide range of products from household needs, electronics
to entertainment. Entertainment: Internet provides facility to access wide
range of Audio/Video songs, plays films. Many of which can be downloaded.
One such popular website is YouTube.
Software Downloads: You can freely download innumerable, software like
utilities, games, music, videos, movies, etc from the Internet.
Limitations of Internet
Theft of Personal information: Electronic messages sent over the Internet
can be easily snooped and tracked, revealing who is talking to whom and what
they are talking about. If you use the Internet, your personal information such
as your name, address, credit card, bank details and other information can be
accessed by unauthorized persons. If you use a credit card or internet banking
for online shopping, then your details can also be ‘stolen’.
Negative effects on family communication: It is generally observed that due
to more time spent on Internet, there is a decrease in communication and
feeling of togetherness among the family members.
Internet addiction: There is some controversy over whether it is possible to
actually be addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers, claim that it is
simply people trying to escape their problems in an online world.
Children using the Internet : This has become a big concern. Most parents do
not realize the dangers involved when their children log onto the Internet.
When children talk to others online, they do not realize they could actually be
talking to a harmful person. Moreover, pornography is also a very serious
issue concerning the Internet, especially when it comes to young children.
There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet that can be easily
found and can be a detriment to letting children use the Internet.
Virus threat: Today, not only are humans getting viruses, but computers are
also. Computers are mainly getting these viruses from the Internet. Virus is is
a program which disrupts the normal functioning of your computer systems.
Computers attached to internet are more prone to virus attacks and they can
end up into crashing your whole hard disk.
Spamming: It is often viewed as as the act of sending unsolicited email. This
multiple or vast emailing is often compared to mass junk mailings. It
needlessly obstruct the entire system. Most spam is commercial advertising,
often for dubious products, get-rich-quick schemes, or quasi-legal services.
Spam costs the sender very little to send — most of the costs are paid for by
the recipient or the carriers rather than by the sender.
Terminologies used in the Internet environment
Domain
While every computer has its own unique address, every user using the
Internet has a unique address called a domain. A domain recognizes one or
more IP addresses. An example of a domain is weather.com and is part of
the URL such as https://www.weather.com. The standard top-level domains
are:

 com - Commercial business

 edu - Educational institutions
 gov - Government agencies
 mil - Military
 net - Networks organization
 org - Organizations (nonprofit)
E-mail

Mail that's electronically transmitted by your computer. As opposed to snail

mail, e-mail sends your messages instantaneously, anywhere in the world. It
has the capability to send messages at any time and to anyone.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The standard method for downloading and uploading files over the Internet.
With FTP, you can login to a server and transfer files (meaning you can "send"
or "receive" files).File Transfer Protocol can also be defined as a method of
transferring files between two computers on the Internet. To access, upload
or download information on a server computer (or a computer that accesses
a server computer), FTP software makes the information access or transfer
possible.
Homepage

The first page that is viewed when the browser starts. It is also the page of a
Web site that provides the introduction or content with links.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is an abbreviation for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the set of rules

by which Web pages are transferred across the Internet.

Link or Hypertext Link

An underlined word(s), phrase(s), or graphics on a Web page that transports

the reader to additional or related information on the Internet.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

An addressing scheme that is used on the Internet to locate resources and/or

services on the World Wide Web. Basically the URL is the address of a
computer file that has been put on a computer server to access the Internet.

Web Page

A single hypertext file or a page that is part of a Web site.

Website
A collection of World Wide Web pages or files.

World Wide Web

Also called web or www, it is a collection of information, resources, pictures,
sounds, multimedia on the internet that are linked and connected together.
Using a software product such as Netscape makes accessing and linking to
web pages containing information, easy. The world wide web was invented by
Tim Bernes-lee in the CERN Laboratory in March 1989.

What is a Domain Name?

A domain name is a description or representation of a computer's location on
the Internet. It is usually separated by a dot.
For example:
www.comentum.com
sales.comentum.com
joespizza.comentum.com

What is an IP address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is an unique number used to identify a
computer on the Internet. If you are connected to the Internet, you must have
a unique network number, which is an IP address. An example of an IP
address is:
207.168.6.12.There are four numbers separated by a dot, and are between 0
and 255.

What is HTML?
Hypertext Markup Language is a coding language used to tell a browser how
to place pictures, text, multimedia and links to create a web page. When a
user clicks on a link within a web page, that link, which is coded with HTML,
links the user to a specific linked web page.

What is Hypertext?
Hypertext is text on a web-page that links to another document or web-page.
The hypertext link can be as small as a letter or word, or as big as all the text
on the page.