BASIC SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

1. MODULE 1: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

2. MODULE 2: PROCESS OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
3. MODULE 3:
4. MODULE 4: MANAGERIAL PROCESS AND ITS IMPORTANCE
5. MODULE 5: IMPLEMENTING AND DECISION MAKING: PROCESS AND
MEANS
6. MODULE 6: LEADERSHIP STYLES AND THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

MODULE 1: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

ENGAGE

Did you know that….School management operates in educational organizations. As

Tony Bush (1986), puts it, “Most of the definitions of school management which have
been offered by writers are partial because they reflect the particular sense of author.
Those which attempt a broader approach are often bland.”
“School management, as a body of educational doctrine, comprises a number of
principles and precepts relating primarily to the technique of classroom procedure
and derived largely from the practice of successful teachers. The writers in the field
have interpreted these principles and precepts in various ways, usually be reference
to larger and more fundamental principles of psychology, sociology and ethics.” -Paul
Monroe : (1913)

“Management implies an orderly way of thinking. It describes in operational terms

what is to be done, how it is to be done, and how we know when we have done.
Management is not an arcane mystique. It is a method of operation. Good
management should result in an orderly integration of education and society -Shelley
Umana : (1972)

SAQ 1.1
What is your idea about school management and school administration?

EXPLORE

Important concepts like the need and nature of school management are paramount in
the study of management and administration of school.

Need for School Management

While writing about the purpose of school management Kandel says, “Fundamentally
the purpose of school management is to bring pupils and teachers under such
conditions as well as more successfully promote the ends of education. “Sir Graham
Balfour writes very aptly, “the purpose of school management is to enable the right
pupils to receive to the right education from the right teachers, at a cost within the
means of the state, which will enable pupils to profit by their learning.
In a democratic country like ours, school management is a necessity. Some suitable,
stable elements are properly motivated and organized in the machinery becomes
necessary to withstand and survive the changes and upheavals caused because of
change of policies and rules. Superior school management in fact is so basic to the
satisfactory functioning of democracy. Errors of judgement can be retrieved in a farm
or factory but these can be fatal when we are concerned with the moulding of ideas
and values of society. An efficient and sound system of school management is, in fact
the basis of a good democracy.

Nature of School Management

It is the management of educational institutions to foster teaching and learning. As a
field of practice, it has some aspects in common with other fields of management,
such as public administration, hospital administration and business management. As
a field of study emerged first at the Teacher’s Training College of Columbia University
and was followed shortly by graduate programme of Stanford University, University of
Chicago and other institutions in the U.S.A. Indian Universities had its place only in
the 1670s. Since the 1950s school management and administration has become a
field of study in its own right. As an applied field it has much in common with other
applied fields such as medicine, engineering, etc. It builds upon psychology,
sociology, economics, political science and other behavioural sciences. For the past
twenty to thirty years emphasis has increased on the development of theory and
research in educational management. Also has increased understanding of
educational organization and the people working in them yet, there is much to be
achieved.
With the beginning of 1970s a new era has emerged in the field of educational
management. Changes have been taking place in all its aspects, conceptual as well
as operational. At the conceptual level new terms, constructs and approaches are
being introduced and used. Even the very nomenclature of the field seems to be
changing. The terms educational management and educational organization are
frequently being used in place of educational management.

(1) Dynamic Function

As a dynamic function, school management has to be performed continuously, in an
ever- changing environment. It is constantly engaged in the moulding of the school
functions. It is also concerned about the alternation of environment itself so as to
ensure the success of the school functions. Thus, it is a never-ending function.

(2) Practicability
The school management must not be a bundle of theoretical principles, but must
provide practical measures to achieve the desired objectives. Whatever the objective
that is decided must be made achievable and practicable to avoid frustration.
(3) Distinct Process
Management is a distinct process to be performed to determine and accomplish
stated objectives by the use of human beings and other resources. Different form of
activities, techniques and procedures, the process of management consists of such
functions as planning, organizing staffing, directing, coordinating, motivating, and
controlling.

(4) Needed at All Levels of the Organization

According to the nature of task and the scope of authority, management is needed at
all levels of the organization, e.g. top level, middle level and supervisory level. Like
the executive, the lowest level supervisor has also to perform the function of
decision-making in one way or another.

(5) System of Authority

Authority to get the work accomplished from others is implied in the very concept of
management since it is a process of directing men to perform a task. Authority is the
power to compel men to work in a certain manner. Management cannot work in the
absence of authority since it is a rule-making and rule-enforcing body. There is a
chain of authority and responsibility among people working at different levels of the
organization. There cannot be an efficient management without well-defined lines of
command or superior - subordinate relationships at various levels of decision making.
Management as an art
As an art, management is about carrying out organisational functions and tasks
through people. This art involves the application of techniques in :
• human and public relations;
• the delegation of an authority (assigning and sharing responsibilities) and duties;
• communication (including decision-making and problem-solving); and
• managing change.
Management as a science
Management here is concerned with establishing a philosophy, laws, theories,
principles, processes, and practices which can be applied in various situations,
including schools.
Management as an organisation
As an organisation, management is about creating formal structures and an
establishment based on a mission (or goals), objectives, targets, functions and tasks.
For example, social and welfare organisations in government management can refer
to education and health services, whilst public security management services could
refer to the police and military.
Management as a person
Managements may be seen as a person or a group of people. For example, a teacher
could say ‘The school management has changed the timetable in the middle of the
term’. This could be referring to the head alone, or to all the senior staff, or it could
refer to the members of the board of governors or school committee. In schools with
several promoted staff a ‘senior management team’ might be formed in much the
same way as a government has a cabinet of ministers.
Management as a discipline
In this sense, management is a field of study with various subjects and topics.
Knowledge, skills, and attitudes in management can be acquired through learning,
from experience and from certificated courses.

SAQ 1.2
Based from the presented concepts, why is school management and school
administration important?

EXPLAIN

We have seen the need and nature of school management. This time our focus is on
the scope and principles of school management, the difference between management
and administration, and the characteristics of good management.

Scope of School Management

By scope, we mean the area within which functioning of school management takes
place.
The scope of school management today is as vast as that of education itself.
Any activity conducive to the achievement of educational goal, is a part of school
management. Such activities could be at the school level, at the college level, or at
the university level. Anything done to improve the quality of education at any stage
may be ranging from the supply of material, human and financial resources to the
highest cultural or academic needs-comes under the scope of school management.
Hence, we shall consider the scope of school management under the following
concepts:

1. Goal Development: The educational system is a sub-system of a society, and

therefore the society not only provides human and non-human resources but also
certain expectations that the system of education will achieve certain goal. Since
society is in a constant process of change, needs of the society change and so do the
goal specifications. It is necessary for the educative process to be responsive to these
changing expectations and it is through the educational management system that
persons involved in the process of management can continuously examine, evaluate,
and change (if appropriate) the goals of education.

2. Programme Planning and Actualization: According to the Oxford English Dictionary,

Planning is “to design some actions to be done before hand”. Philips regards it is “the
process of setting in advance a pattern of action to bring about overall national
policies by the closest possible means and end.” Thus we can say that planning is the
process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the future and directed towards
realising some goals by the best possible means. The essence of planning is the
appraisal of as many operational alternatives as possible ant then selecting the best
for launching action. “Planning selects among alternatives, explores routes before
travel begins and identifies possible or probable outcomes of actions before the
executive and the organisation is committed to any.”
According to the Education Commission (1964-66) planning at the first two stages,
i.e., national level and state levels alone suffers from some deficiencies such as (i)
lack of emphasis on local issues in educational development, (ii) non-involvement of
educational workers, and (iii) overemphasis on expenditure-oriented programmes.
Planning at the local level, i.e. college level is only to offset these drawbacks.
Planning at the college level does not mean that the principal or a few of the
members of the faculty prepare the plan for various activities of the college. Instead
it is a cooperative endeavour of all those who are involved in the implementation of
the plans-not only members of the faculty, teaching and non-teaching, but even the
students, the parents and the local communities must be associated while planning of
the programmes.
The goals that are developed by the management system become the rationale for
programme planning and actualization. Programmes represent the intended
engagement opportunities for students who are to be educated. The responsibility for
the planning and actualization of programmes rests with the management system. It
is therefore essential that the management system should provide technological
support to the educative process in the form of consultations and services. The
management system should initiate, coordinate, provide services and to be a part of
these activities.

3. Organization: Organization has been a problem in the field of education. The

debate over the control of education has over and again raised the salient issue of
how educational machinery should be best organised, politically, professionally and
administratively. Here too, as in several other vital areas, education is handicapped
by tradition. If conventional biases and prejudices can be replaced by decisions made
logically and scientifically, with the achievement of objectives as the only
consideration modern principles and techniques of organization will provide a basis
for effective distribution and co-ordination of functions.

Principles of School Management

A principle is a generally accepted truth, which is based on experience and the
available information. The following are principles of school management:
• division of work
• authority, responsibility and accountability
• discipline
• unity of command
• unity of direction
• centralisation ; decentralisation
• scalar chain (the chain of command in an organisation)
• remuneration of personnel
• subordination of individual interest to general interest
• equity
• stability of tenure of personnel
• initiatives

Characteristics of Good Management

The characteristics of successful school management are given in the following points
:
1. Flexibility: One of the essential characteristics of successful school management is
its flexible character. The school manager should be dynamic, not static; it should
provide enough scope for additions and alternations. The rules and regulations should
act as a means to end and not an end in themselves. Dead uniformity and mechanical
efficiency is the very antithesis of good administration. The framework of
administration should provide enough scope to the administrator to help the needy
student, and the needy teacher, to change the time schedule to suit the weather to
meet any emergency. A word of caution here. Flexibility does not means that the
administration should be in a fluid condition without any specific norm or standard
rules and regulations, creating confusion and chaos at every step. What is meant, is a
proper balance between rigidity and elasticity.
2. Practicability: The school management must not be a bundle of theoretical
principles, but must provide practical measure to achieve the desired objectives.
Whatever objective is decided it must be achievable and practicable to avoid
frustration.
3. Confirmity to the Social and Political Philosophy of the Country: There must be
close connection between school management and the social and political philosophy
of a country. It must adjust itself to the impact of new ideals, new patterns and new
moves of the society. In an autocratic country, educational theory and practice will
have to be different form that of a democratic country because education is one of
the means to achieve social and political objectives. American education is
decentralised and democratised whereas Chinese education is characterised by
regimentation due to political philosophies of the respective countries. In India, school
administration has to be democratic because of political democracy in the country.
4. Efficiency: Successful management is that which result in maximum efficiency. This
will be possible only when human and material resources are properly utilised- right
man at the right place; right work at the right time, every activity and project are well
planned and well executed.
5. Successful Achievement of Desired Objectives: Successful management is one
which leads to the successful achievement of desired objectives of education in a
particular community e.g., healthy social living, development of good physical, social,
moral, intellectual and aesthetic qualities and healthy democratic living.
School management must facilitate education. It exists for the pupil and its efficiency
has to be measured by the extent to which it contributes to teaching and learning.

Difference between
Management and Administration
The difference between management and administration can be summarized under
two categories (Please, access the pictures below)

SAQ 1.3
In your own words, how do you describe effective management and administration?

EVALUATE

Now, it is your turn to check on your understanding of this unit. Take note, this will be
graded and recorded.

Answer the following completely and concisely. Use graphic organizer in giving your
answers and limit your explanation to 5 sentences only (1 paragraph).
1. In your own words, explain the concept school management and school
administration.

2. Discuss the similarities and differences of school management and school

administration.

3. Through a visual presentation, present the essence of school management and

school administration.

MODULE 2 PROCESS OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

ENGAGE

Management is a social process, responsible for the effective and economical

planning and regulation of the operations of the school organization. It consists of a
number of sub-functions such as planning, decision-making, implementing plans and
decisions, guiding other employees, integrating and motivating them, supervising the
personnel, managing conflicts, and so on.
Administration as that function of the industry concerned with the determination of
the corporate policy, the coordination of finance, production and distribution, the
settlement of the structure of the organization under the ultimate control of the
executive. Manage is the function of the industry concerned with the execution of
policy within the limits set-up by administration and the employment of the
organization for the particular object before it.
A growing number of educators have become interested in the study of educational
futures, or as it is sometimes referred to, educational policy studies or policies
research. Their forecasts vary, both in terms of the educational topics they choose to

study and in terms of their actual projections.

EXPLORE
Among the topics education futurists have selected for study and research are
curriculum content (i.e., knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes), materials and
methods; school and curriculum organization patterns ; patterns; preservice and in-
service education of teachers, schemes for financing public, private, and parochial
schools; teachers organizations or unions, and salaries and benefits; student
demographic characteristics; educational media and technology; politics and control
of education; global, international education; functions of non-school educative
agents, such as publishers, commercial television, families, and community agencies;
and school buildings and other learning environments.
Managements may be seen as a person or a group of people. For example, a teacher
could say ‘The school management has changed the timetable in the middle of the
term’. This could be referring to you, as the head alone, or to all the senior staff, or it
could refer to the members of the board or school committee. In schools with several
promoted staff a senior management team’ might be formed in much the same way
as a government has
a cabinet of
ministers.

EVALUATE
Now, let us assess your understanding about the unit.

A. Kindly answer the following questions in 1 paragraph.

1. Explain school management as a process.

2. Discuss the different school management components.
B. Read the research article The Change Process at Schools Based on the Variables of
School Administrators and Environment from Universal Journal of Educational
Research Volume 5. Analyze the article and identify the essential components related
to the school management processes. Be guided by the format below.

MODULE 3

ENGAGE

Management of an Institution
When a plan is prepared by a particular institution on the basis of its own
development and improvement, we call it institutional plan. Some eminent authorities
have defined institutional planning in the following way.

A programme of development and improvement prepared by an educational

institution on the basis of its felt needs and the resources available or are likely to be
available, with a view to improving the school programme and school practices
constitute a plan for an institution. The plan may be for a longer duration or a shorter
duration. —W.M. Buch

If education does not bring in always something which is new, it is not different from
traditions. I think the whole notion of institutional planning is based on this idea that
at every stage right from the school to the topmost level in the field of education
constant effort has to be made in order that we don’t have new ideas for the sake of
new ideas but in order that we can do a better job with whatever resources we have
at our command. —Dr. Shib K. Mitra

Institutional planning is a milestone in the journey towards the improvement of

education. The teacher is the kingpin in any educational effort. It is for the first time
that the teaching community is being asked to act as the planner and executor of
educational improvement. —E. W. Franklin

EXPLAIN

Characteristics of Institutional Plan in the Secondary School Level

It is a fact of experience that no two schools can be identical in their needs and
requirements. Hence every school will have to prepare an institutional plan for itself
independently. An ideal school plan will have the following characteristics:
* It should be need based. It should be prepared according to the needs of the
institution and not on the basis of grants sanctioned.
* It should aim at the maximum use of the available human and material resources.
* It should be a ‘plan of work’ and not a charter of demands. In other words, it must
aim at utilizing what is available and not demanding what is not available and/or is
available to more fortunate schools.
* It should limit itself to the total improvement of the school and should not suggest
work for the district educational authorities or demand funds from the directorate of
education for its implementation.
* If, at all, it needs more finance, the same should be available from the local
community which must be a part to the preparation of the school plan.
* It should be based on certain ‘predetermined objectives’ and goals and all activities
planned should help directly or indirectly to achieve these ends.
* The plan should have a well-defined and finely classified activities for the school
improvement and school development.
* It should be flexible in nature so that at various stages of its implementation
changes may be effected according to needs and requirements. How-so-ever
brilliantly a plan may be prepared, there can be some unforeseen circumstances
which may, later on, force an amendment.
* It should only further the cause of education-its quality and quantity and should not
criticize and condemn the approach of the district authorities or the directorate of
education.
* It should be in consonance with the district educational plan and should in no-case
run contrary to it.
* It should be neither too ambitious to be implemented nor too modest to make any
appreciable improvement. It should, therefore, be working plan based on the capacity
of teachers, the needs of the students and the local community.
* It should clearly indicate the time limit for its implementation. It can be a short term
one or a long term one depending upon the circumstances and needs of the school.
* It should have a plan of evaluation also, so that the result of the efforts could be
evaluated after some intervals, say every years.
* It should have a balanced approach so that it does not towards academics or out of
class activities alone. The principal has to play a very important role as a coordinator.

Areas of Institutional Planning in the Secondary School Level

1. Administration: A number of projects can be taken up to improve administration,
for instance, developing procedures to increase the effectiveness of staff meetings;
Improving supervision; Improving Principal-Faculty Relations; Improving Staff
relations; Democratic organization of school giving main responsibility to pupils.
2. School-Community Relations: Utilizing community resource for better learning in
different subjects ; Arranging talks by commune members
3. Academic: Improving reading habits through a planned use of library; Improving
internal examinations; Reducing wastage and stagnation; Assistance to retarded
students : Education of the gifted; Use of bulletin board for improved teaching.
4. Co-curricular Activities: Trying out different ways of organising co-curricular
activities; Better use of leisure by teachers as well as students; Trying out new
programmes in school assembly; Promoting student interests in school activities;
Developing hobbies among students and so on.
5. Discipline: Finding out ways for removing various evils like truancy, stealing;
Projects in democratic organisation of school giving more responsibility to pupils.

Management at Secondary Level Education

Secondary Schools play a very important role in every student. Students spend their
most crucial and adolescence years in it, so there are different needs and different
aspects as according to their course choices, interests, and hobbies.
Essential Qualities of School Facilities
1. Simple but elegant and beautiful design
2. Low cost
3. Comprehensive Plan: A comprehensive plan is necessary in which function and
space are so harmonised
4. Maximum Utility: It must give the maximum utility to the pupils, as regards
accommodation, protection from weather, maximum light, maximum ventilation, free
movement, and comfortable stay in the room for longer hours.
5. High standard Material: The material used for the building must be of high standard
to enable them to stand the great load put on its use.

EVALUATE

Answer the following questions in 1 paragraph.

1. Explain why is there a need to manage a certain educational institution.
2. What to you are the challenges that a secondary school head might face in
managing and administering a secondary school nowadays? What are the possible
ways to surpass these challenges?
MODULE 4 MANAGERIAL PROCESS AND ITS IMPORTANCE

ENGAGE

Management is a managerial process. The tasks of getting results through others by

coordinating their efforts is known as management. Management ensures effective
use of managers so that the benefits of their experience, skills, and maturity are
available to the school. Management ensures smooth, orderly, and continuous
functioning of an institution over a long period. It also raises the efficiency,
productivity, and profitability of an institution. Efficient management reduces labour
turnover and absenteeism and ensures continuity in the institutional activities and
operations. In this module, we will discuss about managerial process and its
importance in the school set up.

EXPLORE

The recorded use of organised management dates back to 5000 B.C. when the
agricultural revolution had taken place. These agricultural civilizations existed in
India, China, and Egypt. According to Peter Drucker, these irrigation in civilizations
"were not only one of the great ages of technology, but it represented also mankind's
most productive age of social and political innovation". As the villages grew and
civilizations evolved, the managers too grew and evolved. They became the priests,
the kings, the ministers holding power and wealth in the society. Written documents
found in the Sumerian civilization which flourished some 5000 years ago, contains
evidence of management control practices.
As early as 4000 B.C., the Egyptians were aware of the importance of planning,
organizing, and controlling. The huge pyramids of Egypt stand a mute testimony to
the managerial and organizational abilities of the ancient Egyptian civilization.
In the Grecian civilization, we find the origin of the Scientific Method in the famous
Socratic discourses. The Romans who built a vast empire extending from Britain in the
west to Syria in the east ruled it for many years only because of their superior and
advanced managerial abilities.
In ancient India, Kautilya wrote his Arthashastra in about 321 B.C., the major theme
of which was political, social, and economic management of the state. The study of
administration of the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa of the ancient Aryans in
2000 B. C., Buddha's order, and the Sangha in 530 B. C., provide evidence about the
use of the principles of management.
During the 13th and 14th centuries AD, the large trading houses of Italy needed a
means of keeping records of their business transactions. To satisfy their needs, Luca
Pacioli published a treatise in 1494 describing the Double Entry System of Book-
keeping for the first time.
Management thought is an evolutionary concept. New theories and principles were
suggested along with new developments in the educational arena. The new thoughts
supplemented the existing thoughts and theories. This is how developments are
taking place continuously in regard to management thoughts/theories. Management
thinkers and thinkers from other fields such as economics, psychology, sociology, and
education have also made their contribution in the evolution of management thought.

EXPLAIN

Need of Management
One pyramid required 1,00,000 men working for 20 years, covering 13 acres, using
2.3 million blocks, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons. To produce such a
monument required proper planning, work allocation, organising, directing,
controlling, and decision making.
Direction, coordination, and control of group efforts: in school, many persons work
together. They need proper direction and guidance for raising their efficiency. In the
absence of guidance, people will work as per their desire and the orderly working of
institution will not be possible. Management is needed for planning educational
activities, for guiding staff in the right direction and finally for coordinating their
efforts for achieving best/most favorable results.
Efficient management is needed in order to achieve the objectives of educational and
school activity in an orderly and quick manner.

Meaning of Management Process

The term management is explained in different ways. For example, it is said that
management is what management does. Here, management is explained with
reference to its basic functions which include planning, organising, coordinating, and
controlling. Similarly, management is described as a process which involves various
elements. Management process is a continuous one and is run by the managers
functioning at different levels. Management is now recognised as a distinct process in
which managers plan, organise, lead, motivate, and control human efforts in order to
achieve well defined goals. In fact, process means a series of activities/operations
undertaken/conducted for achieving a specific objective. Process is a systematic way
of doing things.

Definition of Management Process

1. According to D. E. McFarland, "Management is the distinct process by which the

managers create, direct, maintain and operate purposive organisation through
systematic, co-coordinated and cooperative human efforts".
2. According to Gemp R. Terry, "Management is a distinct process consisting of
planning, organising, actuating, and controlling, performed to determine and
accomplish objectives by the use of people and other resources".

Elements of Management Process

1. Planning: Planning is the primary function of management. It involves

determination of a course of action to achieve desired results/objectives. Planning is
the starting point of management process and all other functions of management are
related to and dependent on planning function. Planning is the key to success,
stability, and prosperity in all school programs and plans. It acts as a tool for solving
the problems of a school unit. Planning plays a pivotal role in education. It helps to
visualize the future problems and keeps management ready with possible solutions.

2. Organising: Organising is next to planning. It means to bring the resources (men,

materials, machines) together and use them properly for achieving the objectives.
Organisation is a process as well as it is a structure. Organising means arranging
ways and means for the execution of a business plan. It provides suitable
administrative structure and facilitates execution of proposed plan. Organising
involves different aspects such as departmentalization, span of control delegation of
authority, establishment of superior-subordinate relationship, and provision of
mechanism for co-ordination of various business activities.

3. Staffing: Staffing refers to manpower required for the execution of an educational

plan. Staffing, as managerial function, involves recruitment, selection, appraisal,
remuneration, and development of managerial personnel. The need of staffing arises
in the initial period and also from time to time for replacement and also along with
the expansion and diversification of educational activities. Every school unit needs
efficient, stable and cooperative staff for the management of school activities.
Manpower is the most important asset. In many organisations, manpower planning
and development activities are entrusted to personnel manager or HRD manager.
'Right man for the right job' is the basic principle in staffing.

4. Directing (Leading): Directing as a managerial function, deals with guiding and

instructing people to do the work in the right manner. Directing/leading is the
responsibility of managers at all levels. They have to work as leaders of their
subordinates. Clear plans and sound organisation set the stage but it requires a
manager to direct and lead his men for achieving the objectives. Directing function is
quite comprehensive. It involves Directing as well as raising the morale of
subordinates. It also involves communicating, leading and motivating. Leadership is
essential on the part of managers for achieving organisational objectives.
5. Coordinating: Effective coordination and also integration of activities of different
departments are essential for orderly working of an organisation. This suggests the
importance of coordinating as management function. A manager must coordinate the
work for which he is accountable. Co-ordination is rightly treated as the essence of
management. It may be treated as an independent function or as a part of organisms
function. Coordination is essential at all levels of management. It gives one clear-cut
direction to the activities of individuals and departments. It also avoids misdirection
and wastages and brings unity of action in the organisation. Coordination will not
come automatically or on its own special efforts are necessary on the part of
managers for achieving such coordination.

6. Controlling: Controlling is an important function of management. It is necessary in

the case of individuals and departments so as to avoid wrong actions and activities.
Controlling involves three broad aspects: (a) establishing standards of performance,
(b) measuring work in progress and interpreting results achieved, and (c) taking
corrective actions, if required. School plans do not give positive results automatically.
Managers have to exercise effective control in order to bring success to a plan.
Control is closely linked with other managerial functions. It is rightly treated as the
soul of management process. It is true that without planning there will be nothing to
control. It is equally true that without control, planning will be only an academic
exercise. Controlling is a continuous activity of a supervisory nature.

7. Motivating: Motivating is one managerial function in which a manager motivates

his men to give their best to the organisation. It means to encourage people to take
more interest and initiative in the work assigned. Organisations prosper when the
employees are motivated through special efforts including provision of facilities and
incentives. Motivation is actually inspiring and encouraging people to work more and
contribute more to achieve organisational objectives. It is a psychological process of
great significance.

8. Communicating: Communication (written or oral) is necessary for the exchange of

facts, opinions, ideas, and information between individual's and departments. In an
organisation, communication is useful for giving information, guidance and
instructions. Managers should be good communicators. They have to use major
portion of their time on communication in order to direct, motivate, and coordinate
activities of their subordinates. People think and act collectively through
communication.
Importance of Management
Optimum utilisation of resources: Management facilitates optimum utilisation of
available human and physical resources, which leads to progress and prosperity of a
school organisation. Even wastages of all types are eliminated or minimized.
Competitive strength: Management develops competitive strength in a school setting.
This enables a school to develop and expand its productivity.
Cordial relation: Management develops cordial relations, ensures better life and
welfare to employees and raises their morale through suitable incentives (material
and non-material).
Motivation of employees: It motivates employees to take more interest and initiatives
in the work assigned and contribute for raising productivity and profitability of the
school programs.
Introduction of new techniques: Management facilitates the introduction of new
machines and new methods in the conduct of educational activities. It also brings
useful technological developments and innovations in the management of
educational activities.
Effective management: Society gets the benefits of efficient management in terms of
educational development, justice to different social groups, stakeholder satisfaction
and welfare and proper discharge of social responsibilities.

Expansion and growth of school: Expansion, growth, and diversification of a school

unit are possible through efficient management.
Brings stability and prosperity: Efficient management brings success, stability, and
prosperity to a school setting through cooperation among staff.
Develops team spirit: Management develops team spirit and raises overall efficiency
of a school function.
Creates sound organisation: A dynamic and progressive management guarantees
development of sound organisation, which can face any situation - favorable or
unfavorable with ease and confidence.

EVALUATE

How will you describe the need for having a process in school management and
administration? Give 5 important reasons why a process is very much needed in
school setting. (FOLLOW THE ATTACHED FORMAT)
MODULE 5 IMPLEMENTING AND DECISION MAKING: PROCESS AND MEANS

ENGAGE

All school managers are required to take decisions in many situations. Implementing
and decision making are the most crucial aspects of school management and
administration. Sometimes the way a decision is taken may have for reaching
consequences. In the context of educational functioning, implementing and decision
making are largely inseparable. Implementing and decision making are considered to
be the heart of the management. We will discuss implementing and decision making
in this module.
Implementing means to workout a plan practically by some means. Strategy
implementation is the translation of chosen strategy into organizational action so as
to achieve strategic goals and objectives. Strategy implementation is also defined as
the manner in which an organization should develop, utilize, and amalgamate
organizational structure, control systems, and culture to follow strategies that lead to
competitive advantage and a better performance. Organizational structure allocates
special value developing tasks and roles to the staff and states how these tasks and
roles can be correlated so as maximize efficiency, quality, and client satisfaction-the
pillars of competitive advantage. But, organizational structure is not sufficient in itself
to motivate the employees.

EXPLAIN

Process of Implementing
In an educational set up, control system is also required. This control system equips
school managers and administrators with motivational incentives for staff as well as
feedback on staff and organizational performance. Organizational culture refers to the
specialized collection of values, attitudes, norms, and beliefs shared by educational
members and groups.
Following are the main steps in implementing a strategy :
• Developing an organization having potential of carrying out strategy successfully.
• Disbursement of abundant resources to strategy-essential activities.
• Creating strategy-encouraging policies.
• Employing best policies and programs for constant improvement.
• Linking reward structure to accomplishment of results.
• Making use of strategic leadership.
Excellently formulated strategies will fail if they are not properly implemented. Also, it
is essential to note that strategy implementation is not possible unless there is
stability between strategy and each organizational dimension such as organizational
structure, reward structure, resource-allocation process, and others.
Strategy implementation poses a threat to many school managers and staff in school.
New power relationships are predicted and achieved. New groups (formal as well as
informal) are formed whose values, attitudes, beliefs and concerns may not be
known. With the change in power and status roles, the school managers and school
staff may employ confrontation behaviour.

Decision-making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action,

which is thought to fulfill the objectives of the decision problem more satisfactorily
than others. It is a course of action, which is consciously chosen for achieving a
desired result. A decision is a process that takes place prior to the actual performance
of a course of action that has been chosen. In terms of school managerial decision-
making, it is an act of choice, wherein a school manager selects a particular course of
action from the available alternatives in a given situation. Managerial decision making
process involves establishing of goals, defining tasks, searching for alternatives, and
developing plans in order to find the best answer of the decision problem. The
essential elements in a decision making process include the following :
a. the decision maker;
b. the decision problem;
c. the environment in which the decision is to be made;
d. the objectives of the decision maker;
e. the alternative courses of action
f. the outcomes expected from various alternatives; and
g. the final choice of the alternative.
Meaning of Decision-making
All school managers are required to take decision in many situations. Implementing
decision-making is the most critical aspect of educational administration. Sometimes,
the way a decision is taken may have far-reaching consequences. In the context of
organizational functioning, school administration and decision-making are largely
inseparable. Implementing decision-making is considered to be the “heart of the
administration”. It is the process through which administrators work to accomplish
their tasks. In other words, it means making a choice of one form among two or more
alternatives to achieve an objective. The power of an executive in the organization is
defined in terms of the decisions that he is allowed to make. In others words, it
means that power of an administrator in any educational or of the formal organization
is s to be determined by the decision making prevailing in the organization.

Types of Decisions

Depending upon the focus or concern of the decision, they have been classified as (a)
institutional decisions, (b) strategy decisions, (c) administrators’ behaviour decisions.
(1) Institutional Decisions: These are mostly decisions related to scheduling or policy-
making concerning programmes and activities and curricula. They include allocation
decisions, expenditures decisions, planning decisions, facilities decisions, and so on.
They are, in fact, what educational administration is all about. Quality of the
institution depends largely upon these decisions.
(2) Strategy-Decisions: Once an institutional decision has been taken, it remains to
see how it should be implemented. This calls for identifying appropriate strategies or
tactics to move the institution form one existing to another expected situation.
Strategy decisions are decisions about who should be involved in what, when, and
how. They require an understanding of personal abilities and styles of those who are
to be involved in the implementation of the decision. In the same way, priorities and
training considerations may also be necessary to be made.
(3) Administrators’ Behaviours Decisions: No administrator can have in a random
manner. His own behaviour is important in all situations. Hence, all new
administrative situations require specific, relevant, and meaningful behaviours for
success. To take decisions about one’s own response and behaviours, administrators
should know themselves well and also others. Such decisions require to think how
much communication with a group will be necessary and what attitudes and tone will
be most relevant with various groups. Depending upon what will happen to the goal
or objectives as a consequence of the decision taken, decisions may be classified as
follows : (a) Status quo decisions, (b) deferred decisions, (c) new course decisions,
and (d) response decisions.
a. Status Quo Decisions: These emerge when the administrator decides in a situation
not to change the existing situation, not to do anything or not to disturb the existing
status of a phenomenon. It is a no intervention policy. But, it should be considered so
only when it is a deliberate and genuine decision not to take action. If it is the result
of the inability or helplessness of the administrator, it cannot be considered a
decision at all.
b. Deferred Decision: this is the decision which means no to decide it at this time. Let
this be postponed to sometime in future. It should be used sparingly and only in
unavoidable situations.
c. New Course Decisions: This is a decision which implies starting in a wholly new
direction, not just modifying the existing situation. These may be considered radical
decisions.
d. Response Decisions: This is a decision implying actual responses to the situation.
There may be situations in which the administrator, perhaps, cannot use status quo,
or defer or new course decisions and he is forced by the situation to take some action
to alleviate problems or facilitate schools and people in them to meet their objectives.
Decisions taken in such situations are known as response decisions.

Characteristics of Decision-making Process

Decision making process has the following important characteristics :
1. Cyclical Nature.
2. Decision making is a four stage process
3. Decision making has four different settings
4. Decision Models
Cyclical Nature: Decisions breed decisions. No decision is such as it settles the issue
for ever. Rather, the situation is that a decision once finalized, gives rise to the need
for a series of follow- up decisions. Having implemented the decision, there is the
need to evaluate the outcome of the decision-implementation.

Decision Making is a four stage process: These four stages are : (a) becoming aware
of the need for a decision, (b) designing the situation, (c) selecting an alternative, (d)
taking-action or implementing the decision.

Decision Making has four different settings: The setting refers to the total set of
environmental conditions influencing analysis and choice. Depending upon the degree
of change resulting from a choice and the amount of information, grasp the exists to
support the change. There are four important decision settings: (a) metamorphic
decision setting, when the situation, is such that a complete change through the
decision is needed, (b) haemostatic setting is one that involved a low degree of
change and high degree of information grasp. This is the setting which is most
prevalent in the field of education, (c) incremental setting, a situation that result in a
shift to a new balance by the process of series of small changes. In the setting
reliance decision is placed on expert judgement, special studies, committees, and
discussions rather than on routinely collected information, (d) neomobilistic decision
settings, the situations in which new solutions are needed for solving significant
problems and when considerable change is expected after implementing the decision.
But, this is a situation in which little information is available as opposed to
understanding of all relevant information in case of metamorphic setting.

(4) Decision Models: Excluding metamorphic decisions settings, a decision model has
been identified that corresponds to each of the settings. These are: (a) Synoptic
model, appropriate for homeostatic settings in which collection and analysis of all
informations are needed. It does not deal with value conflicts. (b) The disjointed
model is suitable for incermental settings. The focus in this is present time needs;
and a problem-solving approach is used in this case. Improving what actually exists is
a major criterion for considering alternatives; (c) the planned change model is
appropriate for nemobilistic decision settings. This is complex and time- consuming. It
involves steps like research, development, diffusion and adoption.
Elements of Decision-making Process

The process of decision-making involves several elements. The most important of

these are sense of purpose, need of decision, reviewing alternatives, and selecting a
course of action. This also includes sense of priority, sense of time, sense of cost and
understanding of alternatives. The six steps or elements in the process of decision-
making are: (1) recognizing, defining, and limiting the problem,(2) analysing, and
evaluating the problem, (3) establishing criteria of judgement so that the decision can
be evaluated in terms of its success, (4) collecting relevant data, (5) selecting a
solution, and (6) putting the solution into effect.

Problems in Decision-making
There are several factors that complicate the process of decision-making. These may
be considered as problems that the decision-makers sometimes face and find it
difficult to take a relevant decision. These are :

(1) Conflicts and Stress: The foregoing discussion on decision making is relevant in a
situation where there is agreement on both means and ends. There may be a
situation, on the other hand, where some people agree to a decision but others do
not. This is situation of conflict in which there are disagreements about ends, means
or both. Decision-making in this situation is difficult and stressful. It is a problematic
situation for decision-maker.

(2) Ensuring Participation : This is another problem that an administrator faces while
taking a decision. How to ensure effective participation of those who are to be
involved in the process of resolution of conflict. If others know that they are being
involved for no reason at all, they will not feel involvement and the purpose will be
defeated. Many people may feel that their involvement is not useful. Various
decisions require various kinds of participation. This also complicates the process of
decision making.

(3) Problem of Deadlines: Sometimes, the situation is so structured that the conflict
must be resolved by specified time, otherwise definite harm may be caused. Such
deadlines present sometimes serious problems. There are deadlines that are harmful.
They grow out of crisis. An early action is most warranted in-them.

(4) Problem of Adequate Information: Complete and adequate information about all
related variables is necessary for taking a right decision. But, it is not always
possible. How to ensure adequate, complete, certain, and objective information about
all related variables is always a problem, particularly in the field of education
administrator where the administrators deal, most of the time, with people of a
variety of ages in complex institutions where individual roles are regularly shifting.
Prediction of behaviour in these situations is not so valid as it can be in other fields.

(5) Problem of Commitments: Another problem is that it is not always possible to see
that those with whom decision is taken and who are to implement the decision are
committed also to what they have decided. This may be due to several reasons. But,
unless they are themselves, genuinely interested in implementing the decision, it
cannot be made a fact.

EXPLORE

Read the article entitled Leadership Matters Teachers’ Roles in School Decision
Making and School Performance by Richard M. Ingersoll, Philip Sirinides, and Patrick
Dougherty. Kindly summarize the key concepts you got from this article through a
graphic organizer. Give at least big concepts related to decision making skills
especially for a school leader.

Concept 1:

Concept 2:

Concept 3:

Concept 4:

Concept 5:

Concept 6:

Concept 7:

Concept 8:
Concept 9:

Concept 10:

Summary:

EVALUATE

Based form your readings on this module and through the concepts presented in the
different research articles, how will you define the explain the following in your own
words:

1. Process of implementing
2. The importance of decision-making process and its effects to well school
management and administration.
3. The necessary skills that a school manager and school administrator must possess
to provide a holistic school management and school administration.

MODULE 6 LEADERSHIP STYLES AND THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

ENGAGE

Educational organizations should be considered socio-technical systems. They are

unique organizations whose basic components are the individuals and technology.
There is, however, little technology used by educational organizations. Largely, it is
the manpower and human resource on whose manipulation they survive and make
progress. The individuals constitute, by and large, the most important unit of these
organizations. In every society one can find various types of educational
organizations from nursery schools to universities and research organizations besides
highly differentiated and complex administrative departments set-up by the
governments. These organizations are established for the purpose of achieving
certain specific goals. In general, all of them bear a responsibility to impart
knowledge to the pupils, develop in them skills and certain human qualities. Some of
them are established to train people for certain jobs.
The importance of leadership in management of any educational organization can
never be minimized. Achievement of organizational goals very much depends on how
effectively leadership is exercised in the organization. Organizational leaders are the
key figures who can so change the work climate that all the employees are motivated
to work hard with the result that the goals are achieved. On the other hand, there
may be leaders who are there in positions but they achieve nothing. Their philosophy
of life, their styles of management, their ways of decision-making, perhaps, are not
conducive to the effective functioning of the institution. Issues on how to provide
knowledgeable, technically trained and goal-oriented leadership to man the system of
education is highly required. From top to bottom our educational managers are
recruited from amongst the professionals, teachers, and other generalists. They are
not persons who have been trained in administration or management science. They
have acquired a few required skills just working on the job through trial and error
behaviour without knowing why it works and how it works. The organizational process
through which these goals can be achieved and the kind of leadership style that may
be most suited to the kind of situation prevailing in the organization must be given
enough focus.

EXPLORE

This is an article from https://thinkstrategicforschools.com/leadership-in-schools/ by

Maxine Driscoll about the society’s expectation from a 21st century school leader.
Read and analyze the article and try to summarize its essential concepts about school
leadership.

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

The term ‘leadership’ can call to mind a range of different things, depending on the
types of leaders you have been exposed to in the past. If you cast your mind back
over your time at school as a student and your years of teaching, you may be able to
identify a range of school administrator leadership styles. Some of these were more
effective than others, and there are likely to be some leadership models you hope to
emulate and others you hope to avoid. There is always something to be gained from
the past, but preparing students for the future requires forward-thinking, 21st century
leaders.

Whether you’re a current or aspiring principal or head of school, vice or deputy

principal, team leader or department head, another member of school leadership
teams, or an emerging leader still exploring school leadership jobs that are right for
you, you have a responsibility to understand the art of school leadership in the 21st
Century.

21ST CENTURY LEARNERS ARE A NEW BREED

Strategic school building leadership is important because education in the 21st
century is a new frontier, and 21st century learners are a new breed. Many of the
students going through schools since 2015 are from a whole new generation:
Generation Alpha. These children were born from 2010 and beyond, and have grown
up in a different world from older generations. They have never lived in a world
without smartphones, drones, tablet computing, apps, and 3D television. Like
Generation Z, they are extremely comfortable with technology, having grown up
using it: many of them were given smartphones or tablets to play with before they
could even walk.

This unprecedented access to technology means our students have more information
available to them than we could have dreamed of, even a couple of decades ago.
They can teach themselves almost anything they want to know using the resources
available to them. They are also unaware of the borders that used to strictly contain
our experience of the world. Small children can communicate with people all around
the world at the touch of a button. They increasingly have friends in numerous
countries, and grow up expecting that international travel will be a common part of
their life.

As educators, we are tasked with helping these capable, intelligent children prepare
for challenges we can’t fully foresee. That requires a whole new kind of leadership
schools haven’t required in the past.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE A 21ST CENTURY LEADER?

21st century school leaders enthusiastically face the challenging task of preparing
young minds for the future, and they think strategically about the goals and systems
that will support this task. There are a number of different traits, skills, mindsets, and
habits that define 21st century leaders.

PERSONAL TRAITS OF A 21ST CENTURY LEADER

Personal qualities like curiosity, persistence, resilience, flexibility, responsibility and
hard work are as important as ever for leaders. Whatever changes come, these school
principal leadership qualities are always the key to success. Remember, also, that
nobody is born with all the qualities of an effective school leader fully realised. Part of
being a leader is having the will to work on personal growth and improving yourself
constantly. Other qualities are increasingly important for leaders: creativity,
entrepreneurship, innovation, constant learning and teamwork are all crucial for
today’s leaders.

MINDSETS OF A 21ST CENTURY LEADER

The way you think can change your life and your school. It might sound like a
platitude, but it’s not just ‘woo’. A positive mindset makes you confident and
encourages you to take risks when needed and to think outside the box. To begin
with, are you even thinking about yourself as a leader? Too often, people forget to
think about the school principal as leader. You should be truly nurturing yourself as a
leader, not getting bogged down in administration and the small details. Read about
developing a Growth Mindset instead of a Fixed Mindset, and start to look at whether
you are thinking in a way that promotes growth or that will lead to failure. Nothing
will undermine success in your career and in your school like a pattern of unhealthy
self-talk.

In addition to a positive Growth Mindset, you should also cultivate a global

perspective, and avoid the temptation to think small. Approaching everything with a
view to sustainability, wellbeing and the big picture, and you’ll help create a culture
that encourages students to do the same. Leading and managing change in schools is
much less overwhelming with these big touchstones remaining constant.

SKILLS OF A 21ST CENTURY LEADER

The key skills for a leader in 2018 include teamwork, high EQ, and focus. These things
are crucial for managing yourself, and managing others. EQ involves self-awareness
and social awareness, an understanding of people, and good relationship
management. This allows you to understand and be responsive to your own needs
and the needs of people around you. It fosters communication and collaboration,
which is the path to unlocking collective genius.

Focus is a fundamental skill for everybody in the information age, but especially for
busy people in demanding roles. This includes focus in the moment – being able to
stop checking your emails and immerse yourself in deep work – as well as focus on a
broader scale – knowing what are the key values and goals, personally and for your
school, and keeping them central.

HABITS OF A 21ST CENTURY LEADER

Effective leaders work with those around them, making a habit of seeking
constructive feedback and reflecting on how things can be improved. They recognise
the importance of collaboration to unlocking collective genius, but they also know
how to set boundaries. If you’re a school leader, you know how precious your time is:
guard it as such! Don’t waste time on meetings that could be emails, tasks better
suited to somebody else’s skill set, and things that don’t contribute to either your
personal goals or the school’s goals.

Build healthy habits that create a framework to help you perform at your best. From
getting enough sleep to carving out uninterrupted time with your family, these non-
work habits support your work. Look for things that aren’t working in your life, and
trial new ways of solving the problem. If your solution works, make it a habit so you
can stop giving it so much time and attention.

DEVELOPING 21st CENTURY LEADERSHIP IN YOUR SCHOOL LEADERSHIP TEAM

Building leadership capacity in schools should never be limited to training principals
and heads: an intelligent and committed team who are on the same page is
invaluable. It can be overwhelming to know where to begin developing that. Often
formal school leadership training is assumed to be the answer, in the form of
professional development days, one-off school leadership programs, and school
leadership conferences. While a school leadership conference or some thought out
school leadership courses can be incredibly useful, they can only be truly effective in
the context of an ongoing commitment to change. A school leadership program
should help you establish strategies and tools that you can use over time to drive
change, not simply inspire you in a way that ends along with the event.

Whatever your school leadership framework, educational leadership training will help
make your school a trailblazer, and help make yours a school for global leaders of the
future. Whether you’re leaders of a new school or an established school, whether
you’re part of international school leadership or local independent school leadership,
committing to establishing solid leadership in an ongoing manner can make you a
thought leader school, with others wondering how you did it.

EXPLAIN

Meaning of Leadership
Management of any organization, education or otherwise, may be defined as working
with through individuals and groups of individuals to accomplish its goals. This is
exactly what a manager or a leader is required to do. He has to manage his
institution. It means he must achieve the goals of the organization with the help of
other people working in the organization and also with the help of the needed
technology and all the inputs available. Thus, leadership is inseparably bound up with
the achievement of organizational goals. Leadership in education organizations as a
corollary must also be seen in this perspective. Thus, management of education
institutions implies. Leadership in education, in turn, implies efficient and effective
ways of achieving the institutional goals. Effective leader-managers are the basic and
scarcest resources of any school. There is shortage of effective leader-managers in all
fields. But this is more so in the field of education.
The tern ‘manager’ points out to a person who is holding a managerial position .
These persons are held responsible for achieving the organizational goals, they are to
be legitimately designated as leaders. Whether they are effective or ineffective that
is entirely a different matter. However, some experts in the field have defined
leadership in more specific and technical ways. George R. Terry has defined
leadership as an “activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group
objectives.” In the light of this definition an educational leader is one who makes
willingly all efforts on achieving institutional goals be influencing and making other
strive for the same.
Tannenbaum, Weschler, Massarik define leadership as “interpersonal influence
exercised in a situation and directed. Towards the attainment of a specialized goal or
goals.” Koontz and O’ Donnell’ state that “Leadership is influencing people to follow in
the achievement of a common goal.” It emerges from all these definitions that
leadership orientation has two dimensions inherent in its connotation: the
achievement of organizational goals and working with people. These may be
considered two attitudes towards people. His effectiveness as a leader is said to be
determined by these two sets of his attitudes.

Social Notion of Leadership

The concept of leadership is a social notion. It was formally developed during the
1960s to emphasize the ability of the leader to influence the people in his
organization in order to achieve the organizational goals. It emphasizes the
interactional processes involved in the achievement of goals. Each manager in the
field of education is called upon, every day to display leadership in a variety of forms.
Practice of leadership is, in all forms essentially, an interpersonal activity.
What constitutes leadership ? What kind of leadership style is more effective ? What
are the characteristics of an effective leader ? How can leadership be measured ?
These were some of the puzzling questions that were heavily weighing in the minds of
researchers and administrators in the 1950s. Even earlier than that, experts in the
field of administration had been pondering ever these issues. As a result of this kind
of thinking, these questions were answered by people in different ways. Several
theoretical positions were held by them. Which tried to explain and clarify various
aspects of leadership.

1. Philosophical Approach (Theory-X and Theory-Y Assumptions)

The kind of philosophy about other people that a leader has determines his
leadership behaviour. This was the approach developed by Douglas McGregor.
According to him the leadership style is determined by the way a leader perceives his
subordinates by the assumptions that he makes about the human nature and human
motivation. These assumptions are very similar to the views presented by Elton Mayo.
McGregor called these two sets of assumptions as theory-X and theory-Y. The
assumptions underlying theory-X are that people, in general, prefer to be directed;
they try to shirk responsibility and keep their own interest and safety above all other
things. Also, theory-X assumes that people, generally, do not like to work; they are
not enthusiastic about work and prefer to be directed. The theory also assumes that
people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems. They care
most and only for their physiological and safety needs. The theory also assumes that
most people need to be controlled and often forced to achieve organizational goals.
This is the nature of human beings as perceived by theory-X.
Hence managers who believe in this theory tend to exercise greater control and
discipline over their subordinates. They try to supervise them closely and direct them
as to what should be done in what manner. Thus, these managers happen to be
authoritarian, autocratic, task-oriented, rigid and strict. External control over the
subordinates is considered essential by them. Whether these assumptions about
people are correct or incorrect is entirely a different matter. But some people do have
this kind of thinking about others. McGregor himself held that these assumptions are
often inaccurate with the result that management approaches based on these
assumptions fall in many situations.
Another set of assumptions about human nature that Mc-Gregor could sort out was
termed by him theory-Y, He said that many people perceive others differently from
what is expressed in the assumptions underlying theory-X. This theory assumes that
people are not, by nature, lazy and unreliable, and that they can be self-directed and
creative in situations of work, if they are appropriately motivated. Other assumptions
underlying this theory are : people can be made to work to satisfy their social, esteem
and self-actualization needs; they can also be creative in solving organizational
problems; self-control is essential for solving organizational problems and achieving
its goals; people can be made to develop self-control, and that work is as natural as
play in situations of favourable conditions. Thus, Mc-Gregor held that many people
think that the subordinates can achieve their goals best by directing their own efforts
toward accomplishing organizational goals.
The managers who believe in this theory-Y are generally supportive and facilitating.
They care for the people, give them a chance to work independently, they are
permissive and help their subordinates. They have faith in the subordinates and
depend on them. Thus, theory-Y managers are people-oriented largely. Theory-X and
theory-Y are just the attitudes towards people. These do not mean that one is good
and the other is bad. It depends on the situation as to which will work. Similarly, this
is also not true that theory-X manager will always believe as prescribed under the
theory. Since his assumptions are only his attitudes, they may change in course of
time. But, by and large, it appears to be true that these two theories, theory-X and
theory-Y do influence the management styles of the leaders.
2. The Trait Theory of Leadership
Prior to 1960 it was assumed that effective leaders have certain unique personality
qualities. Everyone cannot succeed as a leader. Only those persons who are endowed
with certain personality traits are likely to succeed as leaders. These qualities may be
termed as leadership qualities. According to these views personality of the individual
was considered to control his leadership role. Hence, all research in this field prior to
1960 concentrated on finding out if personality traits were in any way associated with
leadership. A large number of researches were conducted with this aim in view But,
the results were disappointing. As early as 1948 Ralph Stogdil, after a thorough
survey of literature, he concluded that there was little to support the hypothesis that
personality traits were related to effective leadership. Research in the field did not
find any relationship between personal characteristics and leadership. Richard Mann
also reported a similar view in 1959. Bernard Bass said the same thing in 1960.
Hence the trait, approach to leadership was soon discarded in the late 1950s. Then,
came behavioural approaches which shifted the emphasis from personality traits to
actual behaviours of the leaders and tried to identify those behaviours that make for
success as leaders.
3. Behaviour Theories of Leadership
These approaches focused on not what leaders are like, but on what they do to help
groups accomplish their tasks. The major assumption underlying these theories was
that leadership is a highly dynamic relationship between an individual and other
members of the group in a specific environment. The relationship must be expressed
in certain specific behaviours. Hence, it should be explored through research, what
these behaviours are that contribute to effective leadership. Research, now, was
directed to identifying behaviour patterns or styles of effective leadership.
Voluminous research accumulated in the field which was, finally, crystallized into
certain theories of leadership. Most of these studies were conducted during the 1960s
and 1970s. A systematic analysis of the behaviour patterns of persons in positions of
leadership was made. In recognition of the fact that leader’s behaviour patterns may
change in accordance with the situation, attention was shifted towards a situational
or contingency approach.
Andrew Halpin used these dimensions for describing the leader behaviour of school
leaders. He defined them as follows :

1. Initiating Structure: This means making efforts to establish well defined patterns of
organization, channels of communication, methods and procedures of work, and to
specify the relationship between himself and the members of his group.

2. Consideration: This refers to behaviours indicative of friendship, mutual trust,

respect and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his
staff.
These two dimensions, since then, have been used by a number of researchers and
experts in the field with different nomenclatures. Parsons (1951) and Bales (1953)
have termed them as instrumental and expressive dimensions. Stogdill and Coons
(1957) and Brown (1967) have named them as System- Oriented and Person Oriented
dimensions. Brown (1967) has also given them the names of control and cathectic
dimensions. Getzels and Guba (1957) have titled them as nomothetic and idiographic
dimensions. Fiedler (1967) used the terms task-oriented and relationship-oriented for
these two dimensions. All these names and terms mean the same thing.
The history of theoretical considerations underlying these two leader-behaviour
dimensions may be traced back to the reflections of two of the earliest schools of
thought, scientific management and human relations theory. Scientific management
or Taylorism started by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the early 1900s emphasized
increased production (task) by manipulating men, machines, and technology. Setting
up performance criteria to meet organizational goals by the leader was considered by
him supreme. Focus on needs of the organization was of supreme importance for him.
This is the same as task orientation or initiating structure dimension. On the other
hand, human relations movement initiated by Elton Mayo and his associates in the
1920s and early 1930s argued that apart from Considering the task important, it was
also beneficial to look into human affairs, interpersonal relations being the real
power-centres in the organizations. The factions of the leader, as emphasized by this
theory, were also to facilitate cooperative goal attainment among followers. Individual
needs, growth and development of the workers were also equally important. This is
the same as relationship orientation dimension. But, in the 1950s and 1960s three
theoretical considerations were verified and validated on the basis of liberal empirical
research. They were also operationally defined so that their measurement could be
possible. Not all of these experts have, however, defined these dimensions exactly in
the same way. According to Stogdill (l963) each of his system-oriented and person-
oriented dimension of leader behaviour was thought to be consisting of six sub-sets
of behaviour as follows :

(a) Systems-Oriented Behaviour Dimension : It consists of the following six types of

behaviours:

1. Production emphasis

2. Initiating structure: establishment and clarification of roles, setting standards,

assigning tasks of others and telling them what is expected of him and of others.

3. Representation: it entails acting as the spokesperson of the group, publicising the

activities of the group, speaking for the group.

4. Role Assumption: active exercise of the leadership position as opposed to

surrendering it, exercising authority, assuming responsibility.

5. Persuasiveness: Having firm conviction and also convincing others of his point of
view, being assertive.

6. Superior-Orientation: Maintaining cordial relations with the superiors, exercising

influence with higher authorities.
(b) Person-Oriented Behaviour Dimension : This also consists of the following six
subsets of behaviours :

1. Tolerance of Uncertainty: it means leader’s ability to accept postponement and

indefiniteness without becoming anxious or upset waiting patiently for results.
2. Consideration: leader’s regard for the comfort, well-being, status and contribution
of followers.
3. Tolerance of Freedom: Permissiveness.
4. Demand Reconciliation : Resolving complex problems efficiently, dealing with
conflict demands.
5. Integration: Maintaining a closely well-knit group.
6. Predictive Accuracy: Able to anticipate outcomes, interpreting trends.
4. Contingency Theories of Leadership

The behavioural theory of leadership had assumed that there are certain types of
behaviour that make for the success of the leaders, if they have them in the repertory
of their behaviours. In other words, the approach asserted that if a leader shows and
adopts certain behaviour patterns, he is likely to be more effective. For example, it
asserted that if a leader shows regard for his coworkers, he will be more successful. In
a way, the theory presented a view-point that the determinants of the effectiveness
of leaders were locked in certain specific behaviours which they should adopt while
exercising leadership. Since, this approach could not stand the test of research, it was
supplanted by a more flexible and realistic point of view which emphasized that the
effectiveness of leadership is a function of an interplay between leader-behaviour and
the situation in which leadership is exercised. Consequently, it was found to be more
logical to believe that the desire to have a single ideal type of leader-behaviour
pattern was unrealistic.
This means that an effective leader is one who has the ability to adapt to the
demands of the situation and the needs of the followers. The leader or the manager
must be like a painter artist who changes his style and technique in order to produce
a particular effect in his painting. It was, then, realized that the more the leaders
adapt their style of leadership to meet the situational needs including the needs of
followers the more effective they will be in realizing the goals of organization.
These were the views of the situational or contingency theories of leadership. These
theories were termed as contingency theories since the effectiveness of the leaders
were, in them, seen to be contingent upon the situational variables. These theories
are based on four assumptions :
1. that leadership can be described in terms of behaviour-patterns or styles of
leaders.
2. that a key issue is the extent to which leader behaviour is task-oriented and
person-oriented.
3. that there is no one universal best way to exercise leadership under all conditions.
Hence, one has to assess which way or style is more appropriate in a particular
situation.
4. that in choosing a style of leadership, the appropriate criterion is effectiveness or
outcome.
There are four popular contingency or situational theories of leadership. These have
had powerful impact on training of managers and practice of management in all
fields. They seem to have wide applicability to management in the field of education
also. They have been described as follows :

1. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership

Fred Fiedler (1967) developed this theory and said that neither situational
characteristics nor leader characteristics alone accounted for group productivity. To
him it was a combination of both that mattered. Leadership effectiveness, according
to him, as measured by group performance is an outcome of the dynamic interplay
between leader and situation both. In other words, he meant that the performance of
the leader depended on appropriate matching of leader and situation. Fiedler pointed
out that neither the considerate leader nor the structuring leader is consistently more
effective. Similarly, participative management has been effective in some situations
but not in others. On the other hand, critical factors inherent in the situation in which
leadership is exercised determine the effectiveness of the leadership. He
conceptualized these critical factors as the favourableness of the situation and said
that the effectiveness of the leadership depends on the favourableness of the
situation in terms of three characteristics :

1. Relationship between the leader and the followers

2. The degree to which the task is well-structured
3. Power of the leader’s position.
2. Vroom’s and Yetton’s Nomative Contingency Theory
Victor Vroom’s and Philip Yetton’s contingency theory specifies how leaders ought to
behave in order to be effective in view of specific situational contingencies. This is
just opposite to Blake’s and Moutan’s prescriptive formula that team leadership of
participative leadership is most effective. Vroom’s and Yetton’s theory can be
described as a normative theory as it tries to link leader behaviour to specific
contingencies. It lays down norms as to how the leader should behave in a certain
situation. The authors of this theory have developed a taxonomy of leadership styles
as follows :

a. Autocratic Process
Coming under this type there are two leadership styles as follows :
(1) Leader or Manager makes the decision using whatever information is available.
(2) Leader secures necessary information from members of the group and, then,
makes the decision. In obtaining information the leader ‘may’ or may not tell
followers what the problem is.
b. Consultative Process
In this category also there are two leadership styles as follows :
(1) This style refers to the leader who shares the decision making process with
relevant members on a one-to-one basis getting their ideas and suggestions
individually without bringing them together as a group. Having collected the
information he takes the decision on the basis of that.
(2) This style refers, to the leader who shares the problem with members as a group
at a meeting and takes the decision in consultation with them in the meeting itself.
c. Group Processes
This is the group of styles in which the leader makes decisions as follows. This is the
style known as G—II. This is a style in which case the leader acting as the chair
person at a meeting of the group shares the problem with the group and facilitates
efforts of the group to reach consensus on a group decision. The leader may give
information and express opinion but does not try to force a particular decision on
them or manipulate the group through indirect method or backdoors to accept his
decision. He accepts and implements any solution that the support of the entire
group.
Vroom’s and Yetton’s contingency theory describes leadership styles in behavioural
terms and not in general terms. Which of these styles will be more appropriate in a
particular situation can be diagnosed by using the following two steps :
1st: diagnose the situation in which leadership has to be attempted.
2nd: consult the flow chart given here. The chart indicates the style to be used in that
situation.

2. Reddin’s 3-D Theory of Leadership

William J-Reddin’s 3-D theory is seen as an extension of earlier two dimensional (task-
oriented and relationship-oriented) theories. In these earlier theories it was suggested
that the effective leadership style was a combination of these two behavioural
dimensions, task orientation and relationship orientation. Reddin added to these two
dimensions one more dimension, “effectiveness” making it a 3-dimensionaI theory.
Each of these three dimensions has been defined as follows :
1. Task Orientation (TO) : This means that extent to which a manager is able to direct
his own and his subordinate’s efforts toward goal attainment.
2. Relationship Orientation (RO) : This means the extent to which a leader or a
manager is likely to have personal job relationships characterized by mutual trust,
respect for subordinate’s ideas and consideration of their feelings.
3. Effectiveness : This means the extent to which the leader achieves the goal for
which his or her position is responsible. It is a continuous scale and not an “either-or”
dimension.
Situational Contingencies : In order to diagnose the situation in which leadership has
to be exercised Reddin suggested a five factor criterion. These five factors are :
1. Psychological climate
2. The technology used
3. Relationships with superiors
4. Relationship with co-workers
5. Relationship with subordinates.
Taking into consideration these five characteristics of the leadership situation one can
understand it and evaluate it with a view to find out a more appropriate leadership
style.
Leadership Style : This theory identifies basic four styles of leadership :
1. Low task-low relationship style
2. Low task-high relationship style
3. High task-low relationship style
4. High task-high relationship style
Reddin said that these leadership styles are effective in different situations. None of
them is universally effective. Thus, effectiveness of a style depends on the situation
in which it is used. In addition to four basic styles of leadership, Reddin has described
four effective and four ineffective styles.

Effective Styles

1. Executive Styles: This means a great deal of concern for both the task (TO) and
people (RO). A manager using this style is a good motivator of workers. He sets high
standards, recognizes individual differences and utilizes team management with a
view to achieve the well-defined goals of the organization.
2. Developer: This refers to the style in which there is maximum concern for the
people (RO) and minimum concern for the task (TO). A manager using this style has
trust in people and is mainly concerned with developing them as individuals.
3. Benevolent Autocrat: This style gives maximum concern to task (TO) and minimum
to people (RO). A manager using this style knows well what he wants and how to get
it without causing resentment.
4. Bureaucrat: This style gives minimum concern to both the task (TO) and the people
(RO). A manager using this style is mainly interested in the rules. He tries to maintain
and control the situation by using his power and authority as vested in statutes, rules
and ordinances. But, at the same time, he is seen as conscientious.

Ineffective Styles

1. Compromiser: This style considers both the task (TO) and the people (RO)
extremely important in a situation that requires emphasis only on one or neither. The
leader using this style is a poor decision maker and is easily influenced by pressure.

2. Missionary: In case of this style there is maximum concern for people (RO), but
minimum concern for the task (TO), when the situation is such that neither of these
behaviour is appropriate. Such a leader who uses this style is always in a mood to
make a compromise so that harmony is maintained in the organization.

3. Autocrat: This means maximum concern for the task (TO) and minimum concern
for people (RO) when the situation is such that neither of these behaviours is
appropriate. Such a leader has no confidence in others. He is interested only in
getting the job completed and does not care for the people.

4. Deserter: This means minimum concern for the task (TO) as well as for the people
(RO) in a situation in which these behaviours are not appropriate. Such leaders are,
generally, indifferent to and alienated from the organization and work.
Hersey’s and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A Situational theory or contingency theory both mean the same thing. Hersey-
Blanchard theory is similar to Reddin’s 3-D theory. Paul Hersey and Kenneth H.
Blanchard of Ohio University also said that a variety of style may be effective and
ineffective depending upon the situation. When the style is appropriate to a given
situation it is termed as effective. When it is inappropriate it is termed as ineffective.
A style ineffective in one situation may be effective in another situation. According to
these authors, therefore it is not the style in itself that is effective or ineffective.
Rather, it is the situation that makes it effective or ineffective. In this way, these
authors also brought into picture a third dimension, the work environment or the
situation.
This theory is also known as “Life Cycle Theory of Leadership” It relies on some of the
major components contained in Reddin’s 3-D theory. Hersey-Blanchard theory says
that the level of maturity of the group members is a critical factor in the situation that
determines the effectiveness of a leadership style, Situational maturity of the group is
seen in terms of a specific task to be performed. The point for consideration in this
regard is to assess whether the group is mature to do what is required to be done.
Maturity, according to these authors, is composed of two inter-related factors:
1. The skill and willingness to set high but realistic goals.
2. The skill and willingness to take responsibility for the achievement of their goals.
Dimensions of leadership effectiveness
1. Task Orientation (TO)
2. Relationship Orientation (RO)
3. Maturity of the group.
The theory asserts that (i) the maturity level of the group can be increased over time,
and (ii) that as the maturity level increases the effective leadership style will be
characterized by a reduction in TO behaviour and by an increase in RO behaviour.
Situational Leadership Theory in Educational Setting
Hersey and Blanchard have discussed in detail citing evidence from research how
situational leadership theory can be gainfully used in teaching-learning. In one
experiment cited by the authors it was demonstrated that the teacher’s style starting
at S1 (high task-low relationship), then moving to S2 (high task-high relationship)
then to S3 (high relationship-low task) and finally to S4 (low task-low relationship),
made experimental classes show not only higher performance on content
examinations but also to have a higher level of enthusiasm, morale and motivation as
well as less tardiness and absenteeism. Moving from one style to another student
maturity level was increased and the students are in a position to give structure to
the task of learning by themselves.
Hersey and Blanchard further remarked that for the intellectually and emotionally
mature students with clear goals and objectives, particularly when the students are in
a position to Initiate structure
for themselves, low task-low relationship style is more effective. For the immature
students who lack motivation and ability to direct their own work schedule low task-
low relationship style (S4) may be detrimental. In their case, high task-low
relationship style (S1) is recommended.
In case of administrator-faculty relationship where faculty members are experienced
and responsible low relationship-low task (S4) style is said to be more appropriate. In
this case, decentralized organization structure and delegation of authority may be
desirable. But during the early stages, with inexperienced faculty or immature faculty
high task-low relationship style (S1) may be more useful.
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
This theory is just emerging. According to this theory, leaders are effective because of
their impact on subordinates’ motivation, ability to perform effectively and
satisfactions. The theory is called Path-Goal-Theory because its major concern is to
explain how the leader influences the subordinates’ perceptions of their work-goals,
personal goals and paths to goal attainment. The theory suggests that a leader’s
behaviour is motivating or satisfying for the subordinates to the extent it increases
the probability of their goal-attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals.
Historical Foundations
The theory has its roots in a more general motivational theory, called expectancy of
theory motivation. The expectancy theory of motivation holds that an individual’s
attitudes of satisfaction with the supervisor or job or leader behaviour can be
predicted from (i) the degree to which the supervisor or job or leader behaviour is
seen as leading to various outcomes called expectancies, and (ii) the way these
expectancies are evaluated (i.e., valences) by them. Why the leaders behave the way
they do can, thus, be explained on the basis of these expectancies and valences. The
theory can also help in understanding how leader behaviour influences subordinates’
motivation. The theory suggests that the subordinates are motivated by the leader to
the extent that his behaviour influences their expectancies (goals) and valences
(evaluation of goals) and paths to these goals.
General Propositions
There are two propositions underlying this theory. The first one is that leader-
behaviour is acceptable and satisfying to subordinates to the extent they see such
behaviour as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future
satisfaction. The second proposition of the theory is that the leader’s behaviour will
be motivational to the extent that (i) it makes satisfaction of subordinate’s needs
contingent on effective performance and (ii) that it complements the environment of
subordinates by providing the coaching guidance, support and rewards necessary for
effective performance. These prepositions suggest that the leader’s strategic
functions are to enhance subordinates’ motivation to perform, satisfaction with the
job and acceptance of the leader.
Contingency Factors
The relationship between leader behaviour and subordinates’ satisfaction and
motivation to work is not a straight one. There are (i) personal characteristics of the
subordinates such as their perception of leader’s behaviour and also their perception
of their own ability to do the assigned task. Thus, the acceptability of the leader’s
behaviour is determined in part, by the characteristics of the subordinates; (ii) second
is the environment of the subordinates which consists of factors that are important to
their need satisfaction and ability to perform effectively. These environmental factors
are (a) the subordinates’ tasks, (b) the formal authority system of the organization,
(c) the primary work group. Assessment of these environmental factors makes it
possible to predict the kind and amount of influence that specific leader behaviours
will have on the motivation of subordinates. Each of these environmental factors can
be both rewarding as well as demotivating.
Leadership Styles
The theory identified the following four leadership styles and suggested the kinds of
situations in which these will be effective or ineffective :
1. Directive: The theory said that leader directiveness has a positive correlation with
satisfaction and expectancies of subordinates who are engaged in ambiguous tasks
and a negative correlation with satisfaction and expectancies of subordinates
engaged in clear tasks.
2. Supportive: The theory hypothesizes that supportive leadership will have its most
positive effect on subordinates satisfaction in case of those subordinates who work on
stressful, frustrating or dissatisfying tasks.
3. Achievement Oriented: The theory hypothesizes that achievement-oriented
leadership will cause subordinates to strive for higher standards of performance and
to have more confidence in the ability to meet challenging goals.
4. Participative: The theory also hypothesizes that participative leader style is more
satisfying and instrumental in effective performance.

EVALUATE

Talk to two school heads. Get information from them on what specific leadership
styles they usually perform in managing and administering their school. Relate the
data to the concepts presented in the previous parts of the module by supplying
information in the graphic organizer. After that, kindly make a 10-sentence summary
of your output.