Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Composite Construction The materials featured in composite metal

decking are steel and concrete. The decking
The term is used to describe construction work
(made from steel) is laid beneath the concrete
that involves the use of more than work
and acts as a support foundation for the
material to create a structurally sound building
concrete to be laid upon. The combination of
foundation. Composite construction is
the tensile strength of steel framing and the
commonly used in large commercial building
compressive strength of concrete provides a
projects, including multi-storey car parks, retail
structurally sound structure.
stores, warehouses and even skyscrapers.

Composite construction is typically used in the

commercial sector but does extend to Typical examples of composite materials using
residential properties. Most composite in building constructions include:
construction work is carried out in multi-
• Concrete
building establishments. The reason it’s so
popular is because it provides unrivalled • Reinforced plastics
strength and durability using minimal materials. • Cement
The combination of steel and concrete provides • Steel
the perfect foundation for a strong and • Steel-reinforced concrete
lightweight design. The steel elements offer • Composite wooden beams
exceptional tensile strength and the concrete • Composite metal decking
offers fantastic compression qualities. All the above materials are used in composite
construction as they are very strong and
durable.
In structural engineering

In the context of structural engineering,

composition constructions occur when two THE ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE
materials are combined together to act as a CONSTRUCTION
single unit. This essentially creates a stronger
As briefly mentioned above, composition
structure as both materials work together to
construction comes the benefits of composite
support each other. construction are numerous, which we have
For example, when building a car park, a clearly labelled below:
contractor may choose to use steel beams to
• Being lightweight, it reduces the forces
support concrete slabs so that the load is
of the elements supporting them
shared between the beam and the concrete. If
(including foundations).
this is not performed, then the beam will take
• Fast to install
on all the weight of the structure, which will put
• Exceptional load-bearing properties
the structural integrity of the building into
question. Composite construction shares the
load, creating a larger and stronger beam to
support the load.

In the context of composite steel decking

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Cable and Tension Structures Fordism that new developments were able to
meet the intrinsic needs of this construction
system. The low cost of mass production and
the demand for systems capable of adapting to
the most varied terrains with large spans, such
as circus tents for example, encouraged the
development of the technique.

The instability caused in previous models by the

application of interlaced cables and very light
covers, resulting in structural deficiencies, was
solved during the middle of the last century.
This was done thanks to a system of steel cables
Historically inspired by some of the first man- and fiber membranes with a high degree of
made shelters—such as the black tents first strength, together with layers of waterproof
developed using camel leather by the nomads coatings, giving protection against ultraviolet
of the Sahara Desert, Saudi Arabia, and Iran, as rays, fungus, fire, and allowing greater or less
well as the structures used by Native American translucency and reflectivity.
tribes—tensile structures offer a range of
positive benefits compared to other structural Such progress was only possible thanks to the
models. physical-structural studies initiated by German
architect and engineer Frei Otto, who since the
Tensile structure is the term usually used to 1950s conducted the first scientific studies and
refer to the construction of roofs using a the first works of roofing using tensioned steel
membrane held in place on steel cables. Their cables combined with membranes.
main characteristics are the way in which they
work under stress tensile, their ease of pre- As a student, Otto visited the office of Fred
fabrication, their ability to cover large spans, Severud, where he saw the Raleigh Arena in
and their malleability. This structural system North Carolina and was impressed by the bold
calls for a small amount of material thanks to aesthetics and propitious comfort of the
the use of thin canvases, which when stretched project. Back in Germany, he began to explore
using steel cables, create surfaces capable of small-scale physical models, empirically
overcoming the forces imposed upon them. generating several surfaces, by means of chains,
pulled cables, and elastic membranes.
Predominantly used in coverings of sports
centers, of arenas, and industrial and Convinced by the usefulness of tensioned roofs,
agroindustrial constructions, tensile structures he developed the first large-scale project using
are based on the old systems used during the the system, which later enabled projects
Roman Empire. However, from the Roman including Olympic stadiums, clubs, zoo, and
period until the mid-20th century, due to the pavilions. In 1957 he founded the Center for the
low demand, usability, and lack of Development of Light Construction in Berlin.
manufacturers of cables, canvasses, and Seven years later, in 1964 he created the
connections capable of resisting the forces Institute of Light Structures in Berlin at the
generated, there were few technological University of Stuttgart, Germany.
advances. It was only after the Industrial
Revolution and the triggering of the era of

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Author of notable projects passed by

experiments and technical refinement, such as
the German Pavilion for the 1967 Expo in
Montreal and the Munich Olympic Stadium in
1972, the architect is renowned for his intense PTFE-coated glass fiber membranes have
research work and was honored with the RIBA superior durability—around 30 years; and
Royal Gold Medal in 2006 and the 2015 Pritzker greater resistance to the elements (sun, rain,
Prize. Frei Otto is still responsible for the first and winds); however, they require skilled labor.
comprehensive book on tensile structures—
"Das Hangende Dach" (1958)—and intensified
the idea of reinventing material rationality,
prefabrication, flexibility and luminosity over
internal space, and even sustainability, when
the term was not yet used in architecture.

There are three different main classifications in

the field of tensile construction systems:
membrane tensioned structures, mesh
tensioned, and pneumatic structures. The first
relates to structures in which a membrane is In this system, there are two types of support:
held by cables, allowing the distribution of the direct and indirect. The direct supports are
tensile stresses through its own form. The those in which the construction is arranged
second case corresponds to structures in which directly on the rest of the building structure,
a mesh of cables carries the intrinsic forces, while the second case is arranged from a raised
transmitting them to separate elements, for point such as a mast.
example, sheets of glass or wood. In the third The cables, which are responsible for the
case, a protective membrane is supported by distribution of the tensile stresses and the
means of air pressure. hardening of the canvasses, are classified in one
Structurally, the system is formalized by of two ways according to the action which they
combining three elements: membranes, rigid perform: load-bearing and stabilizing. Both
structures such as pole and masts, and cables. types of cable cross orthogonally, ensuring
strength in two directions and avoiding
The membranes of PVC-coated polyester fibers deformations. The load-bearing cables are
have greater ease in factory production and those that directly receive the external loads,
installation; lower cost; and medium fixed at the highest points. On the other hand,
durability—around 10 years. the stabilizing cables are responsible for
strengthening the load-bearing cables and cross
the load-bearing cables orthogonally. It is

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possible to avoid attaching the stabilizing cables Membrane structure

to the ground by using a peripheral fixation
cable.

Further, some nomenclatures for different

cables are generated according to their
position: a ridge-line cable refers to the
uppermost cable; while valley cables are fixed
below all other cables; radial cables are
stabilizer cables in the form of a ring. Ridge-line
cables support gravitational loads while valley
cables support wind loads.

Membrane structures are spatial structures

made out of tensioned membranes. The
structural use of membranes can be divided
into pneumatic structures, tensile membrane
structures, and cable domes. In these three
kinds of structure, membranes work together
with cables, columns and other construction
members to find a form.

Membranes are also used as non-structural

cladding, as at the Beijing National Stadium
where the spaces between the massive steel
structural members are infilled with PTFE
coated glass fiber fabric and ETFE foil. The other
major building on the site, built for the 2008
Summer Olympics, is the Beijing National
Aquatics Center, also known as the Water Cube.
It is entirely clad in 100,000 square metres of
inflated ETFE foil cushions arranged as an
apparently random cellular structure.

Materials

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

The common membranes used in membrane Shell Structure

structures include:

• PVC coated polyester fabric

• Translucent Polyethylene fabric
• PVC coated glass fiber fabric
• PTFE coated glass fiber fabric; foils like
• ETFE foil
• PVC foil.

The main purpose of constructing the Shell

Structure that it will cover a larger area of the
building.

The construction of shell structures is gaining

popularity in areas where there is a high risk of
earthquakes. The word ‘shell’ is commonly used
to describe the outer hard covering of the egg.

In civil engineering, the shell Structure is a

curved outer membrane that is used as a roof
cover in buildings.

What Is Shell Structure?

The shell structure is a thin curved membrane

or a slab that is usually made from the
reinforced cement concrete. The shell Structure
is used as both structure and covering
membrane.

Shell Structures are defined as structures that

are capable of maintaining their shape and the
support loads without any help of the frame or
the solid mass materials.

The term shell is generally used to describe

structures that possess high strength and
rigidity due to their thin form. The of the best
feature of the shell structures is their continuity
and curvature. Due to its structural continuity,
the shells can transmit the loads in a number of
different directions.

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Shell structures are also commonly known as 2. Folded Plates of Shell Structure
plate structures. Structures whose thickness is
very less as per as the length and breadth of the
structure are considered. These types of
structures are known as thin shell structures.

The main purpose of constructing the shell

structure is to reduce the self-weight of the
structure by making the structure as thin as
possible.

Reinforced cement concrete is used in the The folded plate is a type of shell structure that
construction of shell structures because it is a is made from a thin flat slab. These types of
highly plastic material. When the cement is structures are generally joined along their edges
mixed with water it will take the shape of to construct the three-dimensional structure.
centering and once it gets hardened, the shell The maximum length to which the folded plate
membrane will act as a strong and Rigid shell can be constructed is up to 30 meters. The
structure. thickness of the folded plate is only 60 mm.
Folded plates are one of the best attractive
structure which required very less material and
Types of Shell Structure construction cost.
The shell structures are categorized into various 3. Faced Folded Plate of Shell Structure
types which are as follows.

1. Barrel Vaults of Shell Structure

Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat

plates, or slabs, inclined in different directions
The Barrel vault is one of the commonly used and joined along their longitudinal edges.
shell structures because of its greater span Modern folded plate structures are typically
capacity. These types of Shell structures have a made of cast in situ or precast reinforced
span capacity of upto 50m. The barrel vaults are concrete, or steel plate. It consists of triangular
concrete thin shells that mainly consist of the or polygonal planar thin slabs joining along their
cylinder, frame at its ends including columns. edges to form a thin plate structure.

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

4. Folded Plate Dome of Shell Structure Short shells can carry the load in two different
ways, the first is carrying the load to the lower
elements and the second as a curved beam to
the arches.

6. Domes Shell

In this category are included all domes made Domes are basically hemisphere in shape. The
with plane slabs and plates. There are many domes are generally used as a roof structure. A
variations and only a few of them can be shown dome is a space structure that covers a circular
here. Domes may be constructed with small area.
angles between the plates or with large angles
7. Shell Arche
between plates and the structural action may
be considerably different for each type.

The obvious advantage of the folded plate

dome is that the surfaces are easier to form
because they are flat. On the other hand, for
slab spans over 16 ft, the shell wall is thicker
than a curved surface because bending must be
considered. The acoustical properties of a
structure with plane surfaces are much better Shell Arches are the type of Shell structures that
since the sound rays do not come to focus. This are small shells. Shell Arches are not an Efficient
characteristic may be enough to make the structure for the higher value of the bending
folded plate dome superior to the curved dome moment.
for use in an auditorium. 8. Cylindrical Barrel Vault of Shell Structure
5. Short Shell

Cylindrical Barrel Vaults are perhaps the most

Short shell structures basically have a cylindrical
useful of the shell structures because they can
shape that has a large radius as compared to its
span up to 150 feet with a minimum of
length. The overall thickness of the shell is very
material. they are very efficient structures
thin due to its properties.
because they use the arch form to reduce

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

stresses and thicknesses in the transverse 11. Combinations of Shell Structure

direction

9. Translation of Shell Structure

A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. They have solid, shell, and frame parts. For
The shape is different from a spherical dome example, most buildings have a solid
and is generated by a vertical circle moving on foundation. They also have a frame of wood or
another circle. The stresses in a translation shell metal that supports a shell of brick or concrete.
are much like a dome at the top, but at the level
of the arches, tension forces are offset by
compression in the arch.
Shell structures are used worldwide for their
10. Wrapped Surfaces of Shell Structure unique aesthetical views.

1. In India, the popular Lotus temple

which is situated in Delhi is one of
example of a Shell structure.
2. The world-famous Opera House in
Sydney is also an example of a thin shell
structure.
3. The Geodesic shell of Nagoya Dome in
Japan.
4. The Shell of Kresge Auditorium by Week
Saarinen, MIT, Cambridge.
Warped surfaces have a great advantage for
shell structures because they may be formed
from straight-form boards even though they are Applications of Shell Structure
surfaces of double curvature. There are two
types that are most useful namely Conoid and There are various applications of the shell
hyperbolic paraboloid shell. structures in the construction sector which are
as follows. Shell structures are popular which
are commonly used in different areas.

1. The shell structure is commonly used in

seismic zones where structures undergo
seismic loads.
2. The reason of using the shell structures
in the earthquake-prone areas is that it

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

has high strength with respect to its 2. In the case of shell structures, it is not
self-weight. possible to construct a floor above
3. Shell Structures are generally used to them.
cover the larger area of the building 3. The labor cost required for the
where the interior of the building has construction of Shell structures is more.
no columns and walls to support the flat 4. For the construction of the shell
slabs structures, there should be greater
4. Shell Structure has a very interesting accuracy in the formwork required.
and attractive look which is used to 5. The construction of the shell structures
beautify the buildings. required Skilled labor and good
supervision.

Advantages of Shell Structure

Conclusion of Shell Structure
There are various advantages of Shell structures
which are as follows. Shell structures are one of the best and
lightweight structures which are used to cover a
1. Shell structures have very high stiffness.
large area of span without any supports of
2. Shell structures have higher strength
beams, columns, and walls.
with respect to their self-weight.
3. Shell structures are used to cover a The material which is generally used and
large area. suitable for the construction of the shell
4. It is very simple in design and has more structure is concrete. Concrete is used because
strength as compared to other types of of its high plasticity.
Structures.
5. Steel structures are structurally
continuous and it can transfer loads in a
number of directions.
6. Shell structures are attractive in
appearance and mostly used for
decorative purposes.
7. The notes which are applied to the shell
structures are carried to the ground by
tensile, shear, and compressive forces.
8. The dead load in the Shell structure can
be reduced by economizing the
foundation and the overall support
system.

Disadvantages of Shell Structure

1. There are also some disadvantages of

shell structures which are as follows.

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Pre Engineered Buildings: During the 1960s, standardized engineering

designs for buildings were first marketed as
PEBs.[1] Historically, the primary framing
structure of a pre-engineered building is an
assembly of I-shaped members, often referred
to as I-beams. In pre-engineered buildings, the I
beams used are usually formed by welding
together steel plates to form the I section. The I
beams are then field-assembled (e.g. bolted
connections) to form the entire frame of the
pre-engineered building. Some manufacturers
taper the framing members (varying in web
depth) according to the local loading effects.
Larger plate dimensions are used in areas of
higher load effects.

Other forms of primary framing can include

trusses, mill sections rather than three-plate
welded, castellated beams, etc. The choice of
economic form can vary depending on factors
such as local capabilities (e.g. manufacturing,
Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB) are the buildings
transportation, construction) and variations in
which are engineered at a factory and
material vs. labour costs.
assembled at site. Usually PEBs are steel
structures. Built-up sections are fabricated at Typically, primary frames are 2D type frames
the factory to exact size, transported to site and (i.e. may be analyzed using two-dimensional
assembled at site with bolted connections. This techniques). Advances in computer-aided
type of Structural Concept is generally used to design technology, materials and manufacturing
build Industrial Buildings, Metro Stations, capabilities have assisted a growth in alternate
Warehouses etc. forms of pre-engineered building such as the
tension fabric building and more sophisticated
In structural engineering, a pre-engineered
analysis (e.g. three-dimensional) as is required
building (PEB) is designed by a PEB supplier or
by some building codes.[2]
PEB manufacturer with a single design to be
fabricated using various materials and methods Cold formed Z- and C-shaped members may be
to satisfy a wide range of structural and used as secondary structural elements to fasten
aesthetic design requirements. This is and support the external cladding.
contrasted with a building built to a design that
was created specifically for that building. Within Roll-formed profiled steel sheet, wood,
some geographic industry sectors pre- tensioned fabric, precast concrete, masonry
engineered buildings are also called pre- block, glass curtainwall or other materials may
engineered metal buildings (PEMB) or, as is be used for the external cladding of the
becoming increasingly common due to the building.
reduced amount of pre-engineering involved in In order to accurately design a pre-engineered
custom computer-aided designs, simply building, engineers consider the clear span
engineered metal buildings (EMB). between bearing points, bay spacing, roof

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

slope, live loads, dead loads, collateral loads, Roof & Wall Panels : Tin shades & Curtain Wall
wind uplift, deflection criteria, internal crane made of Glass & Roll-formed steel sheets
system and maximum practical size and weight usually comes in this category , S
of fabricated members. Historically, pre-
Sandwich Panels: Sandwich Panel is made of
engineered building manufacturers have
three layers , in which a non-Aluminum Core is
developed pre-calculated tables for different
inserted b/w two aluminum sheet.
structural elements in order to allow designers
to select the most efficient I beams size for their Other Accessories: Mezzanine floors, Bolts,
projects. However, the table selection
procedures are becoming rare with the Insulation, etc.
evolution in computer-aided custom designs.

While pre-engineered buildings can be adapted Advantages of PEB:

to suit a wide variety of structural applications,
the greatest economy will be realized when There are many advantages of Pre Engineered
utilising standard details. An efficiently designed Buildings, which are as follows,
pre-engineered building can be lighter than the Quality control is the main advantage as all the
conventional steel buildings by up to 30%. structural member are engineered beforehand,
Lighter weight equates to less steel and a standards of different codes also taken into
potential price savings in structural framework. consideration & these components are made in
factory under the supervision of Quality Control
Engineer.
Components of PEB:
Lower cost due to the saving in design,
manufacturing and on site erection cost.

Minimizing time of construction due to the use

of software for design of the structural
components.

Low Maintenance due to use of standard quality

of paints over steel members , which increases
the ability to withstand & finally the
Pre Engineered Buildings consist different steel maintenance cost will be low as compare to
structural member which are as follows, conventional steel building.
Primary Frame: Primary framing of a PEB is an Quick Erection, as all the members are Pre
assembly of builtup I-Shaped steel members & Manufactured & skilled labor is used for
that framing consist trusses or castellated connections of different components.
beams etc.
Warranty on PEB, mostly warranty period of 20
Secondary Structural Elements: It is actually years given by manufactures for PEB.
Cold Formed Members, which can be in diff.
shapes like “Z”, “C” etc. In general known as
“Purlins”.

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

Disadvantages of PEB: Geodesic Dome

Although PEB have many advantages in the field

of Industrial structure but still there are some
demerits of Pre Engineered Buildings, which are
as follows,

Rusting / Corrosion Sensitive, as if the quality of

steel used or paint used for coating of steel
members is not of good quality , than it can
damage the structure and thus reduces the life
of structure.

Insulation Cost, as insulating the building to an

agreeable benchmark will furthermore add to Geodesic dome, spherical form in which
your construction costs. lightweight triangular or polygonal facets
consisting of either skeletal struts or flat planes,
Appearance, Steel Sections can be unattractive largely in tension, replace the arch principle and
when left exposed. distribute stresses within the structure itself. It
was developed in the 20th century by American
engineer and architect R. Buckminster Fuller.

A geodesic dome may be supported by light

walls, but unlike other large domes it can also
be set directly on the ground as a complete
structure. A large geodesic dome was used to
house the United States exhibit at Expo 67 in
Montreal in 1967. Among the dome’s many
design applications are sports arenas, theatres,
greenhouses, and exhibition halls.

A space-frame is the three-dimensional (3D)

structural framework that enables a geodesic
dome to exist, as opposed to a typical building's
two-dimensional (2D) frame of length and
width. The "space" in this sense is not "outer
space," although the resultant structures
sometimes look like they come from the Age of
Space Exploration.

The term geodesic is from Latin, meaning "earth

dividing." A geodesic line is the shortest
distance between any two points on a sphere.

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Building Technology 5: Alternative Building Construction System

ADDITIONAL LECTURES

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