Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics

Lecture Notes 1.1:

Content: Introduction Electrodynamics, a brief note on vectors and

Electric charges

1.1.1 A brief introduction to Electrodynamics:

All the forces in the universe may be discussed in these four kinds as per our current
understanding of Physics:

1. Strong Nuclear Force

2. Electromagnetic Force

3. Weak Nuclear Force

4. Gravitational Force

Strong nuclear forces (relative strength: 1) refer to the short-range (~10 −15m) forces between
protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus which can not be felt in real life. Weak nuclear
forces (relative strength: (10 –13) refer to short-range (10 –18m), weak radioactive decays, which
also can not be felt. The gravitational (relative strength: 10 −38 ) and electromagnetic forces
(relative strength: 10–2) are universal (range is ∞). Hence except the gravitational force, we
can only feel electromagnetic forces.

Here is a comment by Griffiths from his popular textbook on electrodynamics:

The brevity of this list may surprise you. Where is friction? Where is
the "normal" force that keeps you from falling through the floor? Where are
the chemical forces that bind molecules together? Where is the force of
impact between two colliding billiard balls? The answer is that all these
forces are electromagnetic. Indeed, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that
we live in an electromagnetic world-virtually every force we experience in
everyday life, with the exception of gravity.

-D. J. Griffiths

1.1.2 The second great Unification in Physics:

The first monumental unification in Physics refers to Newton’s unification of gravity,

with which all the gravitational forces may be estimated using one formula: . The
second unification of Electricity and Dynamics evolved naturally and different scientists like,
Ampere, Faraday, Maxwell and Lorentz were involved in. The Electricity which dealt with
charges, current and magnetism which dealt with magnets and magnetic material were two
separate phenomena in Physics. The first connection was built by Ampere with his postulate
on origin of magnetic property rooted on the electric charges. The Second connection was
established by Faraday and Lorentz with their varying magnetic fields producing electric
fields. The conclusive step was established by Maxwell with his set of four equations.

The Maxwell equations eventually lead to electromagnetic waves (mutually

perpendicular electric and magnetic fields produce electromagnetic waves that propagate
perpendicular to both the fields) and the electromagnetic spectrum. Along with the visible light
(VIBGYOR), microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays were
discovered as electromagnetic in nature.

1.1.3 Electric Charges

When amber, a fossilized gum, is rubbed against wool, it acquired a property of

attracting light objects like leaves, dry straw, etc. William Gilbert in the seventeenth century
showed that glass on rubbing against silk, ebonite on rubbing against cat’s skin or sealing
wax on rubbing against wool also acquire this property. The substances which develop this
property are said to be charged or electrified and the process is called electrification
from ‘electron’, the Greek word for amber.

Further, Gilbert observed that when two glass rods, each rubbed against silk, are
brought closer, they repel each other. Similarly, two ebonite rods rubbed against cat’s skin
repel each other. On the other hand, a glass rod rubbed against silk and an ebonite rod
rubbed against cat’s skin on being brought closer attract each other. Thus, like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. He was also able to establish that various bodies which get
electrified on rubbing either acquired charges similar to those acquired by glass rod or that
acquired by ebonite rod.

Charge:
The matter consists of atoms and in an atom the electrons revolve around the nucleus
in elliptical orbits. The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are loosely bound to it and a
small amount of energy is required to make them free. When a body is rubbed against
another, transfer of free electrons takes place between the bodies, and thus, they acquire
charge. It is denoted by ‘Q’ or ‘q’. By convention, in an atom, electrons are considered to be
charged negatively and protons are considered to be charged positively. The magnitudes of
charge on an electron and a proton are equal. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to
the number of protons in it, thus, the total amount of negative charge in it is equal to the total
amount of positive charge, and thus, the atom is said to be electrically neutral. The
elementary entity of an electric charge is considered to be an electron, and thus, the
charge on any body is expressed in terms of an integral multiple of charge on an electron.

Units of Charge:
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C) named after Charles Coulomb.
It is a scalar quantity. Its
Dimensional formula is [M° L° A1 T1]

Properties of Charges:
The following are the properties of electric charges:
1. There are two types of charges, namely, positive and negative.
2. The magnitudes of the charge on an electron and a proton are equal, but they are
unlike charges. An electron is charged negatively whereas a proton is charged
positively.
3. Two charged bodies repel each other, if they contain like charges, i.e., both positive or
both negative. Two charged bodies attract each other if they contain unlike charges.
4. A neutral body becomes positively charged on losing electrons and not because of
gaining protons. A neutral body becomes negatively charged, when it gains electrons.
5. The amount of charge present in a body, either positive or negative, is expressed in
terms of an integral multiple of the charge of an electron, which is considered the
elementary entity of an electric charge. Because number of electrons in a body is
natural number. If ‘q’ is the magnitude of charge on any body, then q = ne where ‘n’ is
any natural number and ‘e’ is the elementary charge and is approximately equal to 1.6
× 10−19 C. This is known as ‘quantization of electric charge’.
6. The charge on a body gives the information about the excess or deficiency of electrons
in the body but does not give an account of the total charge, either positive or negative,
present on the body.
7. When no net charge is present on a body, it is said to be electrically neutral since the
amount of positive charge present on it is equal to the amount of negative charge on it.
the total electric charge on both the bodies put together, before and after electrification,
remains the same. It is said that, the charge is conserved and this is known as the law
of conservation of charge.
1.1.4 Brief recap on vector algebra:

Physical quantities that are those quantities which are physically measurable. Thought,
knowledge, attitude are not physical quantities (though there exist some kinds of measurements that
are possible, there are either not specific or not universally acceptable) and all measurable quantities
have units. The physical quantities that can be defined using magnitude and units only are known as
scalar quantities. Examples: Distance, speed, mass, density, temperature etc.. Physical quantities that
can be defined only if both its magnitude and direction in addition to the units are specified are called
vector quantities. Examples: Velocity, acceleration, force, torque. Distance is the length of the path
from the initial position to the final position, traced by the particle while in motion. It is a scalar
quantity.

In general a vector is represented with Ā or ⃗

A . The magnitude of a vector A

is written lA I. Minus A (-A) is a vector with the same magnitude as A but of

opposite direction. There are four vector operations: addition and three kinds of
multiplication.
Addition of the vectors:
The addition of vectors is different from addition of mere numbers. For
example, a person who is walking 3km East and then 4 km North is
displaced (displacement is a vector) 5 km in North-East, where as the total
distance (it is a scalar) is 7km (3km +4km). So, addition of two vectors is
attaching tail of the second vector to the head of the first vector. The
resultant vector (AC) is the line connecting tail of the first vector and head
of the second vector.

Addition laws:
Ā + B̄= B̄+ Ā (Commutative)
Ā+( B̄+ C̄)=( Ā+ B̄)+ C̄ (Associative)
Ā− B̄= Ā+(− B̄) (Adding B to A gives A-B)
Multiplication: There are four different multiplications are possible as discussed below. The scalar
product of two vectors and scalar triple product result in a scalar where as multiplication of a vector
with a scalar, cross product of a two vectors and vector triple product result in vectors.

(I) Multiplication of a vector with a scalar: When the vector is multiplied by a number, magnitude of
the resultant vector is raised by that scalar times. The direction remains the same.
a( Ā+ B̄)=a Ā+a B̄
(II) Scalar product or dot product: If θ is the angle between the vectors A and B, the scalar product
may be found out as follows,
Ā . B̄= AB cos θ
(III) Vector product or cross product: If θ is the angle between the vectors A and B, the vector
product may be found out as follows,
Ā X B̄= AB sin θ n^

| |
Ax A y A z
(IV) Scalar triple product: Ā .( B̄ X C̄)= B x B y B z
Cx C y C z
(V) vector triple product: ¯ ( B̄ X C̄)=B( Ā . C̄)−C ( Ā . B̄)
AX

Multiplication of any two vectors which are mutually perpendicular , is zero as cos (0) =0. Similarly,
the cross product of any two vectors which are perpendicular, result into a zero vector as sin(0) =0.
Resolving Vectors into components:
Any vector Ā which is making an angle of θ with X- axis
(Conventional Cartesian Coordinate system) may be resolved into
two components along X- axis and Y- axis such as. A x= Acos θ
is the x component and A y = Asin θ is the y component. Where
the magnitude of A is √ Ā x + A¯y .
 Unit-1

19EPH131: Engineering Physics

Lecture Notes -1.2: Coulomb’s law and Gauss’s law

Sub Unit: Electrostatic Field:

Content: Coulombs law, Gauss law, derivation of Coulombs law from Gauss law

1.2.1 COULOMB’S LAW

An electrically charged body exerts a force of attraction or repulsion on another charged body
depending on whether the two charges are unlike or like, respectively. The magnitude of the
electrostatic force between two charged bodies depends on the magnitude of charge on each body, the
distance between them and also the medium surrounding them. This was studied and established by
Coulomb and is known as Coulomb’s law. The force of attraction or repulsion between any two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charge on the bodies. If ‘q 1’ and
‘q2’ are the magnitudes of two point charges and the force between them is ‘F’, then
F ∝ q1 q2.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charge is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. This is known as ‘inverse square law’. If ‘r’ is the distance between two
point charges having charges ‘q1’ and ‘q2’ and the force between them is ‘F’, then

1
F∝ 2
r
Therefore,
q 1 q2
F=k 2
r
1
where ‘k’ is constant of proportionality which is equal to
4 πε o

1 q1 q 2
F=
4 πε o r2
This expression is known as Coulomb’s law.
Hence, according to Coulomb’s law, ‘The electrostatic force between point charges bodies is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of charge on them and is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them’.
The electrostatic force is a vector quantity, having direction along the line joining the two charges.
where ‘ε0’ is called ‘permittivity of vacuum or of air’.
The above expression only provides magnitude of the force, For the completeness of the description of
the vector quantity, It may be written in vector notation as follows
1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2
F̄= ^
2 r or F̄= r̄
4 πε o r 4 πε o r3
The direction of the coulomb’s force is along the line joining the two point charges.
1.2.2 Electric Field
An electrostatic force exists between two charged bodies, and this force is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Hence, when the distance between two charged bodies
increases, the force between them decreases, and when the distance approaches infinity, the force is
zero. This implies that a charged body experiences an electrostatic force when placed within a certain
region surrounding another charged body. The region surrounding a charged body where its effect is
felt by another charged body is known as an ‘Electric field’.
The force on the charged particle placed in an electric field is proportional to the force,

Fαq
F =qE
F̄=q Ē
If E is the electric field due to the point charge Q, then

1 Q
E=
4 πε o r 2
Where E is the electric field strength or Electric field intensity. In vector notation, this expression may
be written as
1 Q 1 Q
Ē= r̄ or Ē= r^
4 πε o r 3
4 πε o r 2
Units: newton per coulomb (N C−1).
It is a vector quantity,
having the same direction as that of force acting on a positive charge.
The dimensional formula for electric field strength is [MLT−3 A−1].
“Permittivity of a medium is the property of the medium which decides the force between two
charged bodies placed in the medium separated by certain distance”.
SI unit of permittivity is coulomb square per newton per metre square (C2 N−1 m−2).
Permittivity of air or of vacuum, ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2.
And K= 9 × 109 N m2 C–2.

1.2.3 Electric Flux:

The electric flux is defined as the product of the magnitude of the electric field and the surface area.
Φ E=EA
when Electric field is is perpendicular to the surfaces
Φ E= Ē Ā cos θ
or
Φ E= Ē . Ā
For an arbitrary surface containing the charge, the electric flux of the small surface element dΦ of
surface area dA is
d Φ E = Ē .d Ā

By integrating over entire surface, the net flux is,

Φ E=∫ E . dA
s

Properties of Electric field line:

1. The concentration of field lines represents the electric field strength.

2. The field lines do not intersect each other.

3. The field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
4. Though the number of field lines can be drawn infinitely many, relatively the number is
proportional to the magnitude of charge .
5. The field lines always start at the positive charge and end at the negative charge.

6. The electric charges exist in monopoles, in which case, the line start/end at infinite
distance from the negative/positive charge respectively.
1.2.4Gauss’s law: “The net electric flux through any hypothetical closed surface is equal to 1/ε o
times the net electric charge within that closed surface”.

1
Φ E= q
εo
Proof of Gauss’s Law:
Let us consider a point charge Q located in a homogeneous isotropic medium of permittivity ε.
The electric field intensity at any point at a distance r from the charge is

1 q
E=
4 πε o r 2

Now from the figure, the flux through area dA

1 q
dΦ=E . dA= dA cos θ (1)
4 πε o r 2
Where, θ is the angle between E and the normal to dA.
As dAcosθ is the projection of dA is normal to the radius vector. By
definition of a solid angle
2
dAcos θ=r dΩ

θ
ReplacingdA cos 2
with dΩ in equation (1) will lead to
r

1
dΦ= qd Ω
4 πε o

Where, dΩ is the solid angle subtended at Q by the elementary surface are dA. So the total
displacement of flux through the entire surface area is

1
Φ E=∫ d Φ=∫ E . dA= q∫ d Ω
s 4 π ϵo

Now, we know that the solid angle subtended by any closed surface is 4π steradians, so the total electric
flux through the entire surface is
 1 q
Φ E=∫ E . dA = q ( 4 π )=
s 4 π ϵo ϵo

This is the integral form of Gauss’s law. And hence this theorem is proved. Thus the net electric flux
through any surface is equal numerically to the total number of electric lines, N, crossing the surface. If
consider the general case when the electric field ( Ē) is produced by a system of point charges Qi for i
= 1,2,3,...n. Draw mentally a closed surface with area A around the charges so they all are enclosed
within the surface. Such surface is called Gauss' surface.

Integral form:

Gauss's law may be expressed as:

Φ E=∯ E . dA
s

where ΦE is the electric flux, E is the electric field, dA is a vector representing an infinitesimal
element of area of the surface, and “·” represents the dot product of two vectors.

1.2.4 Coulomb Law From Gauss Law derivation

Gauss’s law for electrostatics is used for determination of electric fields in some problems in which the
objects possess spherical symmetry, cylindrical symmetry, planar symmetry or combination of these.
Let us discuss the applications of gauss law of
electrostatics:

Electric Field Due To A Point Charge Or

Coulomb’s Law From Gauss Law:-

To derive Coulomb’s Law from Gauss law or to find

the intensity of electric field due to a point charge
“+q” at any point in space using Gauss’s law ,draw a
Gaussian sphere of radius “r” at the centre of which
charge “+q” is located.
All the points on this surface are equivalent and according to the symmetric consideration the electric
field Ē has the same magnitude at every point on the surface of the sphere and it is radially outward in
direction. Therefore, for an area element ‘d Ā ’ around any point ‘P’ on the Gaussian surface both ‘ Ē ’
and ‘dA’ are directed radially outward,that is ,the angle between ‘ Ē ’ and ‘d Ā ’ is zero. Therefore,

The flux passing through the area element d Ā ,that is,

d Φ E = Ē d Ā cos ( 0 )= Ē d Ā
o

Hence, the total flux through the entire Gaussian sphere is obtained as,

Φ=∫ Ē d Ā

Or Φ= Ē ∫ d Ā

But ∫ d Ā is the total surface area of the sphere and is equal to 4πr2,that is,

q
E ( 4 π r 2 )= (1)
εo

But according to Gauss’s law for electrostatics

q
Φ= (2)
εo

Where q is the charge enclosed within the closed surface

By comparing equation (1) and (2) ,we get

q
E ( 4 π r )=
2
εo

1 q
Or E= (3)
4 πε o r 2

The equation (3) is the expression for the magnitude of the intensity of electric field E at a point, distant

r from the point charge +q.

In a second point charge q 0 be placed at the point at which the magnitude of E is computed ,then the
magnitude of the force acting on the second charge q 0 would be F̄=q 0 Ē

By substituting value of E from equation (3),we get

1 q1 q 2
F= (4)
4 πε o r 2

The equation (4) represents the Coulomb’s Law and it is derived from Gauss’s law of Electric field.

1.2.5 List of applications of Gauss’s Law:

 Applications of Gauss’s Law

 Electric Field due to Infinite Wire

 Electric Field due to Infinite Plate Sheet

 Electric Field due solid charged Sphere

 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics

Sub Unit: Electrostatic Field

Lecture Notes 1.3: Applications of Gauss’s Law-I

1.3.1 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Gauss's law comes handy with complex electrostatic problems for cylindrical, spherical or planar

symmetries. It avoids complex integration. The original approach in electrostatics using Coulomb’s law

is laborious as it involves complex integration to find the electric fields due to charge distributions.

Steps to apply Gauss’s Law:

1. Choose a Gaussian surface suitable in a specific symmetry.

2. Make use of the geometry of the symmetry to simplify.

3. Apply Gauss law.

Note: Gaussian surface to coincide with the real surface of that does not need to be, it can be inside or

outside the Gaussian surface. That is even for an irregular surface; we can choose a geometrical/ regular

shape provided the symmetry.

Symmetry is crucial to this application of Gauss's law. As far as I know, there are only three kinds of

symmetry that work:

1. Spherical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere.

2. Cylindrical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder (Fig. 2.19).

3. Plane symmetry. Use a Gaussian "pillbox" that straddles the surface (Fig. 2.20).
 -D.J. Griffiths

List of Applications of Gauss’s Law

 Electric Field due to Infinite Wire

 Electric Field due to Infinite Plate Sheet

 Electric Field due to solid charged Sphere

1.3.2 Electric Field due to Infinite Wire:

Consider an infinitely long wire of length ‘l’ with linear charge density λ (linear charge density is the

charge per unit length, i.e. λ=q/l . To estimate the electric field, considering a cylindrical Gaussian

surface suitable to the symmetry of wire. The flux through the ends of the cylindrical surface is zero as

the electric field E is radial in direction; where the electric field and surface area element (vector)

mutually perpendicular. The only contributing electric flux is through the curved surface. As the

electric field vectors are perpendicular to every point of surface everywhere on the curved surface, its

magnitude will be constant.

The surface area of a cylindrical surface is 2πrl. The electric flux through the curve then will be

Φ=E X 2 π rl

and

According to Gauss’s Law, the flux is

q
Φ=
ϵo

Therefore,
q
EX 2 π rl=
ϵo

which implies
λl
EX 2 π rl=
ϵo

The electric field hence may be written as

λ
E=
2π r ϵo

Vector notation of the above relation is

λ
E= n^
2π r ϵo

Where n^ is the unit vector pointing the direction of electric field E . Here the direction of the electric

field will be outward/inward depending on whether linear charge density is positive/negative.

Limitations:

• Considering the enclosed charge inside the Gaussian surface but not the entire charge.

• An assumption of infinitely long is made; otherwise, the electric field will not be perpendicular

to the curved cylindrical Gaussian surface

1.3.3 Electric Field due to Infinite Plate Sheet

The figure shows an infinite plane sheet, with surface charge density σ and cross-sectional area A.

The direction of the electric field due to an infinite charge sheet will be perpendicular to the plane of

the sheet. Consider the Gaussian surface as a cylindrical, whose axis is normal to the plane of the sheet.

The electric field can be evaluated from Gauss's Law as

q
Φ=
ϵo

For such continuous charge distribution, the total charge q will be σ A. The net electric flux will be the

vector addition of the electric flux from the two ends of the cylindrical Gaussian surface. Because the
curved surface area and an electric field are mutually perpendicular resulting zero electric flux. So the

net electric flux will be

Φ = EA – (– EA)

Φ = 2EA

Then we can write

σA
2 EA=
ϵo

The net flux due to the infinite charge sheet is

σ
E=
2ϵo

In vector notion, the above equation can be written as

σ
E= n^
2ϵo

Where is a unit vector depicting the direction of electric field perpendicular and away from the

infinite sheet.

Note 1: The direction of the electric field is away from/towards the infinite sheet depending on surface

charge density is positive/negative.

Note 2: Electric field due to the infinite sheet is independent of its position.
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Electrostatic Field
Lecture Notes 1.4: Applications of Gauss’s Law-II

1.4.1 Gauss law for charged sphere:

Gauss’s law is used to estimate the electric field produced by an object charged with
symmetrical charge distribution. For an example, to find the electric field inside/ outside the
charged sphere. Consider the electric field that is produced by the sphere of radius R
symmetrically charged by charge Q.

(I) The electric field outside the charged sphere:

The electric field is along the radial vector from the center of the sphere and the magnitude
being the magnitude of the radius. Therefore let a concentric sphere as a Gaussian surface,
whose surface area may be A. As a sphere of radius r>R and area A=4πr 2. The electric field
on the Gaussian sphere is normal to the surface every where and has the same magnitude.
The net flux through the sphere is therefore given by

Φ=E. A=E X 4 π r 2

On the other hand, Gauss' law shows

q
Φ=
ϵo

Equating these two equations gives

 2 Q
E4πr =
ϵo

This implies the electric field outside the charged sphere at a distance r from its center

1 Q
E=
4 π r ϵo
2

This is the exactly the same formula as using Coulomb's law for electric field of point charge
'Q' located at the center of the sphere. The important result from the above exercise is that
Coulomb's law which was initially formulated for point charges can also be used for charged
spheres.

(II) Electric field inside the sphere of radius R:

Show, using Gauss' law, that the electric field inside the sphere of radius R, uniformly
charged by charge Q, at r≤R is given by

1 Q .r
E=
4 π ϵo R3

(III) Electric field on the surface:

q 2
=E 4 π R
The electric flux, Φ=E(4πR2) which implies ϵ o

1 q
E=
4 π ϵo R2
Electric field is maximum on the sphere

The plot consolidates the above three cases of charged sphere. it may be understood that
the electric field varies linearly within the sphere, maximum on the surface and decreasing
inversely proportional to the distance from the charged sphere outside.
1.4.2 Gauss law in a Dielectric medium:
Dielectrics do not contain free electrons to conduct current. On applying external force,
charge centers may get separated exerting electric field as a result. This displacement of
charges is known as Polarization. Consider conductors having plane area A and the
separation d between plates filled with vacuum. Let +q and –q be the charges on the plates.
Due to the charges, E0is the uniform electric field directed from positive to the negative plate,
as shown in the figure. Consider the Gaussian surface around the conducting plate of positive
charges. According to Gauss's law, the electric flux through the closed surface is,

∮ E . d A= ϵq
o

ϵ o ∮ E . d A=q

The field E o is perpendicular to the plate surfaces. (II) Consider that the space between the
two plates is filled with a dielectric material of permittivity ε. Charge –q'/ +q' is induced on the
surfaces of the dielectric due to the charge q / -q on the plates respectively. The induced
charges then set up an electric field E | in the positive induced surface charge must be equal
to the negative induced surface charge. Therefore, with the dielectric material, the surface
encloses two types of charge: Free charge on the conducting plate (q) and Induced charge
(q’). The top surface of dielectric material due to Polarization aquires -q'. The net charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface around the (the upper conducting) plate (of positive
charges +q) is therefore q-q'.
 q q
Φ= E . A=
According to Gauss's law, ϵ o or ϵo

In the case of the dielectric medium, ϵ o ∮ E . d A=q+q =q intern

I

The total electrical field is the sum of the applied field and the internal field
I
E=E o+ E

ϵ o ∮ E . d A=q+q =q intern
I

As q| =-∮ P dA, where P is polarization vector,

∮ ( ϵ o E+P) d A=q+qI =qintern

Substituting D=ϵcsub o E+P in the above equation,
∮ D . d A=q+qI =qintern

There fore, “the surface integral of displacement vector ‘D’ over a closed surface is
equal to the total charge within the closed surface" or “The outward flux of D over any
enclosed surface S equals to the algebraic sum of the free charges enclosed by S".
This integral equation, although derived for parallel plate conductors, is correct in general. It is
the most prevalent and very useful form of Gauss' law. The charge q enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is the free charge only, which can be controlled and measured.
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Electrostatic Field:
Lecture Notes 1.5:
Content:
Divergence of Electric field, Gauss divergence theorem, Differential Form of the Gauss
law, curl of Electric field.

1.5.1 Divergence of Electrostatic Field:

The electric field is represented using the field lines. The direction of the field is the direction
of a positive test charge in the field. The density of these lines per unit area is proportional to
the strength of the electric field. Field lines conventionally originate from positive charges and
terminate on negative charges. Field lines can never cross since if this would occur, the
direction of the electric field at that particular point would be undefined as shown in the figure.

The divergence of the electric field, E is defined as

divE= lim
∮ E . dA
ΔV → 0 ΔV
where div E is the divergence of the electric field.
∂ Ex ∂ E y ∂ Ez
divE=∇ . Ē= + +
∂y ∂ y ∂z

∇ . Ē is the measure of spread out of the field E. If spread out of the field E is outward from a
point, it is positive and implies that there is a divergent field from a source (+ve charge) at the
point. If spread out of the field E is towards the point, it is negative and implies a convergent
field from a sink (-ve charge).
Physical Significance of Divergence:
If A represents a fluid, the divA gives the rate of flow of fluid at the point per unit volume
If divA is positive at the point, then it is the expression of the fluid or source of the fluid is there
at that point.
If div A is negative, the point has contraction or point is at the point. (This vector is known as
solenoidal)
∇ . E=−ve implies that net negative charge which is a sink of field lines and hence field lines
converge to that.
∇ . E=+ve implies that there is net positive charge which is a source of field lines and the field
diverges from it. The figure shows some examples of divergent and non-divergent fields.

∇ . E=0 implies that there is no net charge inside.

Is the differential form of the Gauss’s law

1.5.2 Gauss divergence theorem:

z
d Ā
∮ Ā . d Ā=∮ ∇ . Ā dV
S V

The net flux of a vector field through a closed surface is same as X

the integral of divergence of the vector field through the volume
closed by the surface.
Y
1.5.3 Differential Form of the Gauss law:
Gauss law in integral form may be written as

∮ Ē . d Ā=ϵ1o ∮ ∇ . ρ dV
S V

using Gauss divergence theorem,

∮ ∇ . Ē d V̄ = ϵ1o ∮ ∇ ρ dV
V V
 ∮ [ ∇ . Ē− ϵ1o ρ ]dV =0
V

1
∇ . Ē− ϵ ρ =0
o

1
or ∇ . Ē= ϵ ρ
o

This is the differential form of the Gauss’s law

1.5.4 Curl of an Electric field:

The word ‘curl’ means rotation. Curl of a vector measure how much vector swirls about a
point. The figure shows two examples of curly fields.

If A is a vector, Ā= A x i+ A y j+ A z k^ then the curl A may be found out mathematically as

( )
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl Ā=∇ X Ā =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

∇ X Ā= ^i ( ∂∂Ay − ∂∂Az )+ ^j( ∂∂Az − ∂∂Ax )+ k^ ( ∂∂Ax − ∂∂Ay )

z y x z y x

The curl of a vector at any point is defined as the maximum line integral of the vectors per unit
area. It speaks about rotation associated with the vector. It is a vector quantity.

Physical significance:
If curl A=0, no rotation is attached to it and if curl≠0, rotational variation is there associated
with that vector. If curl A=0 then, an associated scalar quantity ( Φ ) with that vector may be
defines as Ā =∇ Φ .
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Electrostatic Field:
Lecture Notes 1.6:
Content: Stoke’s Theorem, Electrostatic potential, the relation between force and
potential, Poison’s equation, Laplace equations
1.6.1. Stoke’s Theorem:
z
Stoke’s theorem provides a relation between the surface
integral of a derivative of a function and the line integral of the n^

function along the boundary. This is useful to discuss surface

parameters in terms of linear parameters of a closed loop X
containing a surface.

∮ Ā . d l̄ =∮ ∇ X Ā dA Y
l S

1.6.2 Electric Potential

A charged particle placed in an electric field has potential energy because of its interaction
with the field. The potential energy U at a point is equal to the work done on the charge by the
electric field in bringing from infinity to the point in the electric field. The electric potential at any
point as the potential energy per unit charge.
1 Q
V=
4 πε o r

Let ‘w’ joule of work is done in moving a charge ‘q’ coulomb towards a charged body from
infinity. Then the amount of work done in moving the positive unit charge, i.e., the potential (V) is
given by V = w/q. Thus, the electric potential is measured in units of ‘joule per coulomb’, which in
the SI system is called volt (abbreviated as V).

Units: Volt, 1V=1J/1C

It is a scalar quantity.
The dimensional formula of electric potential is [ML2 T−3 A−1].
Volt: ‘When one-joule work is done in bringing one coulomb positive charge from infinity to a
point in an electric field, then the electric potential at that point is said to be one volt’.

Potential Difference:
The extra work needed to move it from ‘B’ to ‘C’ in the electric field of ‘Q’ is equal to the
difference in the works W1 and W2, i.e., it is equal to W 2 − W1. This difference in the work (W2 –
W1) is equal to the difference in the potential at the two points, V 2 − V1 and is called the potential
difference between the two points in the electric field.
Thus, ‘potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in
moving a unit positive charge between the two points opposite to the electric field’.
The potential difference is denoted by ∆V, and so, ΔV = V 2 − V1. Instead of one coulomb of positive
charge, if ‘q’ coulombs of charge is moved between the two points, then work done,
W = ∆Vq.
Equipotential Surface: An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has
the same values at all points, that is the potential difference between any two points on the
surface is zero.

1.6.3 The relation between force and potential:

From the definition of the potential difference between two points, the potential difference
between two points in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit positive charge
between the two points in the electric field against its direction’.
The potential difference is denoted by ∆V, and so, ΔV = V 2 − V1.
As the charge moves a distance along the path, the electric field does an element of work
dW on it,
W 12 =−F . dx=−qE . dx
This is equal to the potential difference
2

V =−∫ E .dx
1

in a 3D space
2

V =−∫ E .dr
1

Alternatively, the Electric field is the negative gradient of electric potential,

 E=−∇ V =− ( ∂V∂ y + ∂V∂ y + ∂V∂ z )
x y z

where -∇ E denotes the gradient of a scalar field V, and it is obtained by

∂ ∂ ∂
operating + + on the scalar potential V.
∂y ∂ y ∂z

But that's no condition on V --curl of gradient is always zero. Of course, we used

the curl law to show that E could be expressed as the gradient of a scalar, so it's not really
surprising that this works out: ∇ x E = 0 permits E = -∇V; in return, E = - ∇ V guarantees
∇ x E = 0. It takes only one differential equation (Poisson's) to determine V, because V is a
scalar; for E we needed two, the divergence and the curl.

-D.J. Griffiths

1.6.4 Poisson’s equation:

The electric field may be written as the gradient of a scalar potential,

E=−∇ V

From the above expression, the divergence and curl of E may be written as

1
∇ . Ē= ϵ ρ and ∇ X Ē=0
o

2 1
Therefore, ∇ . Ē=∇ . (−∇ V )=−∇ V = ϵ ρ
o

Therefore the divergence of E is Laplacian of V.

2 ρ
Gauss’s law may be written as, ∇ V =− ϵ
o

This is known as Poisson’s equation.

1.6.5 Laplace equations:

The Poisson’s equation reduces to Laplace’s equation when there is no charge, q=0 and
ρ =0 . Therefore, the Laplace’s equation is, ∇ 2 V =0
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Magnetic Fields:
Lecture Notes 1.7:
Content: Introduction to magneto-statics, Biot–Savart’s law, divergence and curl of magnetic
fields.
1.7.1 Introduction to Magnetic fields:
Magneto-statics deals with magnetic fields produced by permanent magnets and steady
currents. The origin of the permanent magnetic moments can arise in atoms due to a) The
orbital magnetic moment of the electrons. b) The spin magnetic moment of the electrons,
c)The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus. Oersted discovered for the first time that current
carrying conductor also produces a magnetic field, like a permanent magnet. A current
carrying loop can be replaced by a magnetic dipole of dipole momentum μ = md directed from
–m to +m. In nature, objects with south and north poles are known as magnets. Matter is
made of atoms and atoms contain electrons circulating
around its nucleus. Moving electrons constitute electric
currents at atomic level.
In 1820, Oersted discovered that electric currents create
magnetic fields. Currents in opposite direction repel and
currents in the same directions attract as shown in the figure.
The direction of magnetic field is given by right hand thumb rule.
Some important Terms:
 The two ends of the bar magnet, the source of attraction is more, known as “magnetic
poles”.
 Magnetic Poles occur in pairs always.
 The region around the magnet where its magnetic influence is experienced is known
as “magnetic field”.
 The magnetic field is schematically represented by the magnetic “lines of force” (or)
“lines of magnetic induction”, collectively known as magnetic flux.
 Concentration of lines of induction is an indication of magnetic field strength.
Magnetic Field:
 At the two ends of the bar magnet, the source of attraction is more, known as
“magnetic poles”.
  Magnetic Poles occur in pairs always.
 The region around the magnet where its magnetic influence is experienced is
known as “magnetic field”.
 The magnetic field is schematically represented by the magnetic “lines of
force” (or) “lines of magnetic induction”, collectively known as magnetic flux.
 Concentration of lines of induction is an indication of magnetic field strength.

Magnetic Flux Density:

The number of flux lines passing through a unit area of
cross section is denoted by the induction vector “B”.
B=Φ / A
S.I. Units: Tesla (or) Weber per square meter.
T = Wb / m2
CGS Units: gauss (G): 1 G = 10-4 T
Magnetic Field strength, H:-
H may be viewed as the externally applied magnetic field. B
may be considered as the internal field strength within the substance subjected to a H field. H
is often used to denote the magnetic field, instead of B, known as magnetic field strength.
H Units: ampere turns per meter A/m -- S I
O e (Oerstead) -- Gaussian System

In the free space,

Bo = μo H μo = 4πx10-7 Henry/ m.
Bo- Magnetic Induction
H- Magnetic Field Strength
μo- free space permeability

Magnetic Field:

Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area
1.7.2 Biot-Savart’s law:
Biot and Savart studied how a compass was deflected when current carrying conductors
were brought near by. The result of their work is the Biot-Savart law, which begins with a
description of the field intensity,H, due to a differential current element.

Let a conductor of an arbitrary shape carry a steady current ‘I’. Let ‘P’ be a point in the
magnetic field produced by the current. Let a small element AB of length ‘dl’ produces a
magnetic field ‘dB’ at ‘P’. Let ‘r’ be the distance of ‘P’ from the current element ‘I dl’. If the
ange between ‘dl’ and ‘r’ be ‘θ’.
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field ‘dB’ is directly proportional to
the product “ I dl sinθ ” and is inversely proportional to the square of distance between
current element and the point P.
dB α dl sin θ
1
dB α
r2
1
dB=k dl sin θ 2
r
where k is a constant proportionality. The value of k depends on the medium in which the
conductor is situated and the system of units adopted.
μo
In Sl units, its value for free space is k=
4π
The Biot-Savart law holds only for steady currents. The current element ‘I dl’ is the source
of static magnetic field, just as a charge q is the source of static electric field. The above law
is
μ o dl sin θ
written in the vector form as dB= r̄
4 π r3

The direction of the magnetic field is given by the right hand thumb rule. The direction of dB is
into the plane of the paper
The total magnetic field at P due to the conductor is obtained by summing up the
contributions of all current elements.
μ o dlsin θ
B=∫ dB= ∫ r2
4π

1.7.3 Divergence and Curl of Magnetic Field:

Divergence of the magnetic field is always zero as for any chosen
closed surface, the number of magnetic field lines enter is equal to
the number of lines leave the surface. This means there exist no
sources or sinks of magnetic fields. Hence, it may be concluded that
magnetic monopoles. They always exists in pairs of north pole and
south pole.
∇ . B=0
the total magnetic flux passing through the surface is given by
Φ B =∫ B . dA=0
s

1.7.4 Gauss's Law For Magnetism:

Lust as in the case of electrostatics, the magnetic flux through an element of area dA is give
by the dot product of B with dA. For an arbitrary surface dA bounded by a closed surface S of
area A.

the total magnetic flux passing through the surface is given by

Φ B =∫ B . dA=0
s

The lines of vector B have neither beginning nor ending. The number of lines emerging
from any volume bounded by a closed surface S is always equal to the number of lines
entering the volume. Hence, the flux of B through any closed surface is equal to zero.

Gauss' Law for magnetism applies to the magnetic flux through a closed surface. In this case
the area vector points out from the surface.

Differential forms of Gauss law:

using divergence theorem,
 ∮ B̄ . dA=
¯ ∮ ∇ . B dv=0
S V

∮∇ . B dv=0
V

∇ . B̄=0
This is gauss law of magnetism in differential form.
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Magneto Static Field:
Lecture Notes 1.8:
Content: Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law. Modified Ampere’s law.

1.8.1 Ampere's Law:

Ampere's law states that the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic field
over any closed path is equal to the amount of the current enclosed by the loop. Thus,
∮ B̄ . d̄l=μ o I

Both Ampere's law and the Biot-Savart law are relations between a current distribution and
the magnetic field that it generates. We can apply Biot-Savart law to calculate the magnetic
field caused by any current distribution. On the other hand, Ampere's law allows us to
calculate magnetic field with ease in case of symmetry.
Ampere’s law in differential form
Using Stokes’s theorem, the line integral can be converted into surface integral.
∮ H . dl=∮ ∇ XH dA =∮ J . dA
l s s

Multiplying both the sides with μ o,

∮ B . dl=μo∮ J . dA This is the integral form of Ampere’s law

l s

∮ (∇ XB dA − μo J . dA )=0
s

The integral must be equal to zero for any arbitrary choice of the surface S.
∇ XB dA − μ o J=0

or ∇ XB dA=μ o J

Significance of Ampere’s law:

Though Biot-Savart’s law relates current distribution and magnetic field, Ampere’s law gives
an easy solution to estimate magnetic fields in case of symmetryas Gauss’s law in
electrostatics.

1.8.2 Electrodynamics:
So far the study referred to either steady current or steady charge producing magnetic
field and electric field respectively. Electrodynamics refers to moving charges producing
magnetic fields or changing magnetic fields producing current. Most of the real life
applications may be rooted to these concepts. This began with the Faraday’s observation in
1831.
1.8.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is a basic law about how a magnetic field will inter-
act with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf). This phenomenon is
known as electromagnetic induction.

It states that a current is induced in a conductor in the

vicinity of a changing magnetic field. Lenz’s law of
electromagnetic induction states that the direction of
this induced current is such that the magnetic field
created by the induced current opposes the initial
changing magnetic field which produced it. The direction of this current flow can be determ-
ined using Fleming’s right-hand rule.

∂ ΦB
∮ E .dA=− ∂t

As per the definition of the flux, the total magnetic flux linked with the loop may be written as line in-
tegral of the flux density

∮ Ē dl=− ∂t∂ ∮ B̄. d Ā

s

This is the integral form of Faraday’s alw.

Differential Equation:

Applying stokes theorem to the closed integral, ∮ Ē . dl=∮ (∇ X Ē)d Ā

l s
 ∮ (∇ X Ē)d Ā=−∫ ∂∂tB d Ā
s s

∮ (∇ X Ē+ ∂∂B̄t )∂ Ā =0
s

∂ B̄
∇ X Ē+ =0
∂t

∂ B̄
∇ X Ē=− This is the differential form of Faraday’s law.
∂t

Significance:

The time varying magnetic fields produces electric fields.

1.8.3 Analogy between Electrostatic and magneto-static equations:

Though there are differences in physical properties of electric and magnetic fields, there are
similarities in their mathematical properties. When there are no charges (or) currents, the Gauss’s law
for both electric and magnetic fields, in a region of space
∮ E .dA =0
∮ B . dA=0 ... over a closed surface

For any closed path in their region, Faraday’s law and Amphere’s law,

∮ E .∂ l=−∂∂tB
∮ B . dl=0
The symmetry between E and B is missing in case of a closed path. Maxwell questioned that the
magnetic field could be produced by a varying electric field, the answer restored the symmetry between
electric and magnetic fields in Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law, which is in turn governs the emergence
and propagation of electromagnetic waves.
 “ The electric field diverges away from a (positive) charge; the magnetic field line curls around
a current. Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative ones; magnetic
field lines do not begin or end anywhere-to do so would require a nonzero divergence. They typically
form closed loops or extend out to infinity. To put it another way, there are no point sources for B, as
there are for E; there exists no magnetic analog to electric charge. This is the physical content of the
statement ∇ . B=0 · …………...It was Ampere who first speculated that all magnetic effects are
attributable to electric charges in motion (currents). “
-D. J.Griffiths
 Unit -I Basics of Electromagnetics
Sub Unit: Magneto Static Field:
Lecture Notes 1.9:
Content: Displacement Current, Continuity Equation, Modified Ampere’s law. Maxwell’s
equations
1.9.2 Continuity Equation
Electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed. Therefore, net charge in an
isolated system remains constant. This is known as the principle of conservation of
charge. “This implies that the rate of increase (decrease) of charge within a closed volume
equals to the net rate of flow of charge into (out of) the volume”. In mathematical form, this
is expressed by “Equation of continuity”.
Current leaving the volume v may be written as I =∮ J . dA=∮ ∇ . J dV
S V

that is the charge leaving the volume.

dq ∂
The same amount of charge should enter the volume: I =− =− ∮ ρ ∂ V
dt dt V

Equating the above two equations,

∂ρ
∮ ∇ . J dV =−∮ ∂t
dV
V V

∮( ∇ . J + ∂ t ) dV =0
∂ρ
V

∂ρ
∇ .J+ =0
∂t
This is known as equation of continuity. Maxwell used this continuity equation to figure out the
required current term (displacement current) between the capacitor plates filled with a non
conducting medium hence modified the Ampere’s law.
1.9.2 Displacement Current

Consider a circular parallel plate capacitor, in which i is the current. In an Amperian loop
considered, the magnetic field is set up due to the flow of the current.

Hence, ∮ B .ds=μ 0 I
That is “ the line integral of the magnetic field around the Loop is proportional to the total current
that passes through the surface bounded by the loop”.
 For the same loop, if the boundaries are
stretched to enclose the entire left side capacitor

plate, ∮ B dA will be same as previous but because

there is no current passing through the space between
the plates of the capacitor, hence μ 0 I=0 , which
violates the ampere’s law. From the symmetry to the
Faraday’s law, “a magnetic field is set up by a
changing electric field “ can restore the Ampere’s
law. This is established by Maxwell by introducing the concept of displacement current.

The displacement current in between the plates of the capacitor can be derived as,
The charge q is related to the electric field E in the gap,
q=є 0 Φ E
Differentiating both the sides gives,
dq ∂ ( ΦE )
I d= =є 0
dt ∂t
The quantity E A is electric flux Φ E and hence,
∂ ΦE
I d =є 0
∂t

∂ ΦE
comparing ∮ B .ds=μ 0 I and ∮ B .dS=μ 0 є 0
∂t
I =I d
The concept of displacement current thus permits to retain the notion that current is continuous
across the parallel plate capacitor.

1.9.3 Modified Ampere’s law

Suppose Φ E is the electric flux in the surface, from the analogy with Faraday’s law of

∂ ΦE
induction, ∮ B . dA=μ0 є0 ∂t
Hence, the magnetic field could set up by the current (or) by a changing electric field which
modifies the Ampere’s law to read,
∂ ΦE
∮ B . dA=μ0 I +μ0 є 0 ∂t
This is known as modified ampere’s law.
 −∂Φ B
The modified form is symmetric to Faraday’s law, ∮ E .dl= ∂t
where ΦB = ∫ B . dA .

Hence, the magnetic field can be set up either by a conduction current i (or) by a displacement
current id, and we re-write the Ampere’s law as,

∮ B . dA=μ0 ( I + I d )
1.9.4 Maxwell’s equations:
The whole subject of electricity and magnetism may be described mathematically with the help of
four fundamental equations with the modification in Ampere’s law. They discuss how the charges
produce fields. They appear symmetric in free space that is in the absence of free charges and
steady currents. They appear symmetric in all media if magnetic monopoles exist. Here are the
integral forms of the equations:
q
Gauss’s law of Electricity ∮ Ē . d Ā=
ϵo
Gauss’s law of Magnetism ∮ B̄ .d Ā=0
−∂ Φ B
Faraday’s law ∮ Ē Xd l=
∂t
∂Φ E
Modified Ampere’s law ∮ B̄ Xd l=μ 0 I + μ0 є 0
∂t
The differential forms of the equations may be written as
1
1. The differential form of Gauss’s law of electrostatics, ∇ . E= ρ
ε0
2. The differential form of Gauss’s law of magnetostatics, ∇ . B=0
−∂ B
3. The differential form of Faraday’s law: ∇ X Ē=
∂t
∂E
4. The differential from of modified Ampere’s law: ∇ X B̄=μo J + μ 0 ϵ 0
∂t
Note: The above equations may be written in terms of H and D instead of B and E using the
relations B= μ 0 H and D=ϵ 0 E .
Physical Significance of the Maxwell’s equations:
a Inclusion of the displacement current term increased the symmetry. If individual magnetic

charges exists (∮ B . dA= μ 0 q m ), the equation will be more symmetric.

b Though, except the displacement current, nothing is new from the Maxwell’s equations, the four
equations together predict the emergence of the existence of the electromagnetic waves. These
waves were predicted by Maxwell in 1888 and fifteen years later Hertz discovered them.
c Consistent to Special Theory of Relativity.