AIAA's 3rd Annual Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations (ATIO) Tech AIAA 2003-6748

17 - 19 November 2003, Denver, Colorado

Optimisation of a Thrust Reverser Cascade: An Assessment of Dynamic Response

During Reverse Thrust.

J. Butterfield*, H. Yao†, E. Benard‡, M. Price‡, R. Cooper‡, C. Armstrong**, S. Raghunathan††.

Centre of Excellence for Integrated Aircraft Technologies.

The Queen’s University of Belfast.

1.0 Summary frequency, it is possible to make a 60% reduction in

suitable cascade design concepts relatively early in
This paper focuses on design procedures for the the design process. This will represent a
cascade within a cold stream thrust reverser, see considerable time and cost saving when the design
Figures 1 and 2. Levels of stress and displacement process moves on to the point where more complex
are examined and the air speeds required to cause a simulations will be carried out.
cascade box to vibrate at its natural frequency, are Although a jet engine part has been chosen as
determined. The main aim of this work is to the subject for this work, the methodologies will be
develop integrated design methodologies for the equally applicable to any complex aerospace
thrust reverser cascade using simple, low level component where structural performance is a key
models and analysis methods, so that unsuitable requirement and multi-disciplinary simulation is
design concepts can be ruled out as early as heavily used.
possible in the design process when fundamental 2.0 Introduction
design changes are less costly and before
commitment is made to more complex and time Higher levels of competition in the aerospace
consuming design simulations. industry have meant that manufacturers are coming
A number of cascade box concepts are devised under increasing pressure to reduce costs. The
with a view to reducing weight, having taken into most effective savings are made by technical
account stress and deflection levels as well as developments and improvements[2]. Up to 80% of
vibrational behaviour. Vane deflections of up to the manufacturing and operational costs of an
0.4mm have a minimal effect on thrust reverser aircraft are determined during the conceptual
performance, causing a reduction in total reverse design phase alone [3]. One way of improving the
thrust of only 0.28%[1]. Cascade weight is reduced design process during this cost critical period, is the
by removing transverse support members from the development and application of more efficient
cascade structure. For a limiting value of vane methodologies and tools for better simulation of
displacement of 0.4mm, it is sown that a minimum component performance [4].
of two transverse supports are required. This
results in a 1.6% weight saving in a single cascade
box.
For a cascade box design with four transverse
supports, it is shown that reducing the thickness of Thrust Reverser
Cascade & Blocking
the cascade box surround, transverse supports and Mechanism
vanes by 50% keeps the maximum vane
displacement below the limiting value of 0.4mm
vane displacement. This results in a 49% reduction
in the weight of a single cascade box.
Modal analyses show that the operational air
speed for the thrust reverser design used for this
work, is significantly lower than the speeds
required to cause the cascade box concepts to
vibrate at their natural frequencies.
Based on the design criteria of minimum
weight, limiting value of displacement, acceptable
Figure 1: Jet Engine Nacelle System Showing
factor of safety against material yield and
Position of Thrust Reverser.
likelihood of structural vibration at a natural
_________________________________________
*
Research Fellow, Virtual Engineering Centre.
The use of computer aided methods to simulate
†
Research Assistant, School of Aeronautical Engineering. the behaviour of aircraft components has
‡
Lecturer, School of Aeronautical Engineering. traditionally been difficult and time consuming due
**
Professor of Computer Aided Engineering. to the inherent complexity of aerospace systems
††
Bombardier Aerospace, Shorts Chair.
and the differing approaches taken by the various
disciplines involved in the design process. Design

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1

Copyright © 2003 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.
efficiency can be improved by using idealised reduced landing runs which allow the use of shorter
simulation models and by employing a more runways and can increase airport throughput. The
integrated approach to the design process using use of wheel brakes is reduced which prolongs
predictive methods such as CFD (Computational component life, reduces tyre wear and decreases the
Fluid Dynamics) and FEA (Finite Element time that operators must wait for braking systems to
Analysis). To illustrate how aircraft component cool down after use[6]. Safer landings can be
design can be improved, a thrust reverser cascade achieved on wet, icy or snow covered runways
has been assessed using CFD and FEA methods. where wheel breaks can have difficulty achieving
In modern aircraft the thrust reverser is built in traction. Thrust reversers can also provide
to the nacelle system and uses the power of the jet additional safety and control margins for aircraft
engine as a deceleration force during landing, by operation during take off, landing and movement
reversing the direction of the airflows which on the ground.
generate forward thrust in flight. Figure 1 shows a The thrust reverser cascades used for this work
nacelle system and highlights the position of the are manufactured in aluminium alloy by the process
thrust reverser. When reverse thrust is engaged on of investment casting. Vane configurations vary
the jet engine shown in Figure 2, the aft section of depending on where the cascade is located on the
the nacelle or trans cowl, moves back introducing a engine nacelle. Although their primary function is
blocking mechanism to the cold stream flow to generate reverse thrust by directing air flow in
generated by the fan. This re-directs the air flow the direction of motion, it is important that the
through a series of cascade boxes placed reverse air flow does not interfere with other
circumferentially around the nacelle, forcing the aspects of the aircraft’s performance. When the air
flow back in the direction of movement thereby flow exits the nacelle, it must be managed by and
reducing the speed of the aircraft. directed through the cascades, to avoid[6]:

- Engine stability problems due to re-ingestion

of reversed flows. These include surge, stall,
inlet distortion and noise.

- Foreign object damage to turbo machinery as

reversed air flow lifts ground debris into the inlet
flow.

- Efficiency losses on control surfaces if flow

(a) Forward Thrust. characteristics around the aircraft are changed.

- Vibration and deterioration of surface finish

due to impingement of reversed air flows on
aircraft surfaces.

- Control issues resulting from buoyancy due to

reversed flow from engines mounted on opposite
sides of the aircraft, meeting below the fuselage.

The high pressures and airspeeds within the

nacelle system during reverse thrust can lead to
supersonic and turbulent flow regimes within the
(b) Reverse Thrust. structure and through the cascade. These factors
can lead to issues with the strength and durability of
Figure 2: Section Through Jet Engine Nacelle nacelle components. A combination of the
With Cold Stream Thrust Reverser Operating flexibility and elasticity of aero structures and the
in Forward and Reverse Thrust. consequent effects on air flow and aerodynamic
forces, can also lead to vibration[7]. A particularly
Thrust reversers significantly affect nacelle dangerous mode of synchronised vibration is flutter
design increasing weight and resulting in higher which occurs when two modes of vibration
manufacturing and operational costs. Thrust coincide in such a way that one feeds the other,
reverser systems can account for up to 30% of total drawing additional energy from the surrounding air
nacelle weight (not including engine)[5] and this flow[8]. Flutter can develop very rapidly from a
added weight can increase fuel consumption by up comparatively small vibration to a level which can
to 2%[6]. result in the catastrophic failure of major control
Despite the disadvantages, thrust reversers offer surfaces such as wings, ailerons or tail units. There
several operational benefits. These include,

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 2

are countless combinations of vibrations in aircraft which included the thrust reverser components. To
systems that can join forces in this way. A lack of reduce modelling and analysis times further an
understanding of complex structural behaviours additional, symmetrical idealisation was used.
such as flutter, has meant that there has been a Only the upper half of the 2D nacelle section was
tendency in the past to ‘over design’ which adds analysed. Figure 3 shows the extent of the
weight and increases cost. triangular mesh surrounding the nacelle with
The work detailed in this paper does not include increased nodal concentrations around the areas of
an examination of flutter. The primary mode of interest, through the nacelle section. An enlarged
vibration on the cascade vanes is translational view of the cascade area is also shown with no
oscillation. The analyses described in this paper mesh for clarity. Each cascade design was analysed
include the determination of the loads required to for operating conditions which resulted from a free
make a cascade box vibrate at its natural frequency stream flow speed of mach 0.2 and a temperature of
which can also result in component failure. The 288K. The FLUENT CFD flow solver was used to
calculated load factors are based on translational simulate the time-dependent, viscous, compressible
Eigenvalues only. The main aim of this work is to flows through the model representing the thrust
develop integrated design methodologies using low reverser[9]. The governing equations were solved
level models and analysis methods for use early in by FLUENT using the finite volume method.
the design process. At this stage concepts can be
‘ruled in’ or ‘ruled out’ quickly, with little impact
on cost. A full component evaluation to determine
the likelihood of flutter is a complex and time
consuming process. If simpler, lower level
analyses can be used to eliminate unsuitable
designs early on, then this will save time later in the
design process when more complex analyses are
carried out.

3.0 Methodology & Procedure

The starting point for the simulation of cascade

Figure 3: Two Dimensional CFD Mesh Used to
performance was a CAD model for a Bombardier
Simulate Aerodynamic Conditions Within Nacelle
Aerospace Shorts thrust reverser design. A 2D
Section.
representation of the cascade region was extracted
from a 3D solid model of the nacelle. It has already
3.2 Structural Model
been stated that vane configurations vary around
the nacelle depending on where the cascade is
3.2.1 Geometry & Mesh: The aspect ratio
located. For this work, the geometry used was
(length : width : depth) of the vanes meant that the
representative of a cascade box located on the
cascade structure was suited to an analysis using
outboard side of the engine where the reverse air
shell elements. The shell geometry was constructed
flow is simply thrown back in the direction of
by first identifying a medial line through each vane
aircraft movement. The methodologies developed
section. The medial lines were swept into surfaces
for this geometry are equally applicable to cascades
and meshed using Standard Homogeneous Plate
located elsewhere on the nacelle. The 2D data was
elements (PATRAN Default = CQUAD4).
used as the starting point for both the aerodynamic
With each of the vanes having a uniform thickness
simulation and the structural analysis. The
through the majority of its section, the geometrical
aerodynamic simulation was carried out first using
representation of each vane was completed by
FLUENT, to determine the loads on each of the
adding the thickness as a geometric property.
vanes in the cascade for a realistic set of operating
Figure 4 shows the shell element model
conditions. Idealised structural models were then
representing a thrust reverser cascade box with four
set up in PATRAN using, 2D shell element
transverse supports equi-spaced through the vanes.
representations of the cascade. The models were
This ‘master’ geometry was simply adjusted for
analysed using NASTRAN. The following sections
each of the models representing the cascade box
describe how each of the simulation models was
with three, two, one and no transverse supports.
constructed.
For the analyses carried out on the cascade box
using different thicknesses for the surround,
3.1 Aerodynamic Model
transverse supports and vanes, the geometric
properties of the shell elements were simply
An idealised two dimensional, geometric
changed within the PATRAN pre-processor.
representation was used to simulate the
aerodynamic performance of the nacelle section

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 3

 problem when modal analyses are to be carried out.
The complete structure must be present for this type
of analysis.

3.2.4 Material Properties: For all of the

structural models representing the thrust reverser
cascade, typical material properties for aluminium
alloy were used.
Transverse
Support Surround

Figure 4: Representation of Cascade Box Using

Shell Elements. Four Transverse Supports.

3.2.2 Load Application: The results

from the aerodynamic analysis yielded a load
distribution for the cascade which took the form of
a resultant pressure at the x coordinate for each of
the nodal positions around the perimeter of the
vanes. Idealising vane geometry to use shell
elements, meant that the vane perimeters and load
data from the aerodynamic analysis could not be
directly transferred to the shell model. With each Fixed Support.
vane now represented by a medial line, the x
coordinate associated with each pressure value was Figure 6: Fixed Supports Applied to Cascade Box.
no longer valid. To apply the load, each pressure
value was re-associated with an equivalent point on 4.0 Results
the medial line. The pressure distribution was then
idealised to the linear profiles shown in Figure 5. 4.1 Aerodynamic Analysis.
The load tables for the pressures on the top and
bottom faces of each surface were generated using Figure 7 shows the static pressure distribution
three data inputs. through the nacelle section and around the 2mm
thick cascade vanes resulting from operating
conditions with a free stream flow speed of mach
0.2 and a temperature of 288K. The higher
pressures, occur to the right of the cascade section
where the airflow is physically blocked and re-
directed through the cascade. A similar plot was
obtained for the case where 1mm thick vanes were
used with the contours. The static pressure
distributions predicted using CFD were transferred
and used in the structural models.

Top Face.
Bottom Face.

Figure 5: Simplification of Load Distribution for

Application to Shell Structural Model.

3.2.3 Support Conditions: A rigid, fixed

support was applied to the edges where the cascade
is attached to the rest of the nacelle, see Figure 6.
Previous structural work on the thrust reverser
cascade used symmetry to reduce modelling and
analysis times [1,10]. Although this is valid for the
determination of stress and displacement data, Figure 7: Static Pressure Distribution Through
symmetry cannot be used to reduce the size of a Nacelle Section Including Cascade.

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 4

 When the surround, transverse support and vane
Earlier work[10] has shown that for the same 2D thicknesses were reduced by half, the four
sectional data, when the resulting deflections transverse support configuration gave a factor of
determined from a structural model, were safety against material yield of 4.3, see Figure 11.
transferred back into the aerodynamic model, total In the case where no transverse supports were used,
reverse thrust changed by 0.28%. The maximum the maximum stress level exceeded the typical,
vane deflection was 0.4mm. minimum yield stress for aluminium alloy of
For the purposes of the structural analysis 250MPa.
carried out for this paper, a limiting value of 0.4mm
is placed on the maximum vane displacements.
Any cascade design where the maximum
displacement is 0.4mm or less, is therefore assumed
to have little or no affect on total reverse thrust.

4.2 Structural Analysis.

4.2.1 Displacements. (a). 4 Transverse (b). 3 Transverse

Supports. Supports.
Figure 8 shows the deformed mesh plots for the
five different cascade box configurations. For each
case the maximum vane deflection occurs at the
mid-span of the vanes. As the number of transverse
supports is reduced from four to zero, the maximum
vane displacement increases as shown in Figure 9.
For a 2mm surround and vane thickness, the
minimum number of transverse supports required to
keep the maximum deflection below 0.4mm, is two.
A reduction in the number of transverse supports (c). 2 Transverse Supports.
from four to two results in a weight saving for a
single cascade box of 1.6%.
When the surround, transverse support and vane
thicknesses were reduced to by half, only the four
transverse support configuration was below the
0.4mm deflection limit, see Figure 9. In this case,
the reduction in thickness of both the surround and
the vanes has resulted in a 49% reduction in the
weight of the cascade box. (d). 1 Transverse (e). No Transverse
Support. Supports.
4.2.1 Stresses.
Figure 8: Deformed Mesh Plots For Five Cascade
Figure 10 shows the Von Mises stress Box Configurations.
contour plots for the five different cascade box 1.5E-02
configurations. For each case the maximum stress
occurs at the point where the vanes are attached to 1.3E-02
Maximum Displacement, M.

the transverse supports. As the number of

1.1E-02
transverse supports is reduced from four to zero, the
maximum vane displacement increases as shown in 8.4E-03
Figure 9. The increase in vane displacement has
the effect of inducing higher stresses in the vane / 6.3E-03
support joints and consequently, the highest stresses 4.2E-03
occur in the configuration with no transverse
supports, see Figure 11. For the original vane and 2.1E-03
0.4mm
surround thicknesses, the maximum vane stress is
0.0E+00
below the typical, minimum yield stress for
4 3 2 1 0
aluminium alloy of 250MPa, for all of the cascade Number of Transverse Supports.
configurations. The factor of safety against
material yield is considerably lowered as the Vanes 2mm Thick Vanes 1mm Thick
number of transverse supports is reduced from four
to one. The factor of safety against material yield Figure 9: Maximum Displacements For Five
for the two support optimum design, is 5.5. Cascade Box Configurations.

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 5

 localised, confined to individual vanes. The move
from the vibrational modes which encompass the
whole structure to those focused on individual
vanes, is characterised by a sharp drop in the load
factor required to cause vibration at the natural
frequency, see Figure 13. For all of the design
concepts at the original component thickness, the
(a). 4 Transverse (b). 3 Transverse load factors indicate that the air speed required to
Supports. Supports. cause the cascade box to vibrate at its natural
frequency, are significantly above the operational
speed used for this analysis.

(c). 2 Transverse Supports.

(a). 4 Transverse (b). 3 Transverse

Supports. Supports.

(d). 1 Transverse (e). No Transverse

Support. Supports.

Figure 10: Maximum Von Mises Stresses For Five (c). 2 Transverse Supports.
Cascade Box Configurations.

4.0E+08
3.5E+08
Maximum Von Mises Stress, Pa.

3.0E+08 Typ. Min.

Yield
2.5E+08
2.0E+08
(d). 1 Transverse (e). No Transverse
Support. Supports.
1.5E+08
1.0E+08 Figure 12: First Vibrational Mode Shapes For
5.0E+07 Five Cascade Box Configurations.
0.0E+00
4 3 2 1 0
Number of Transverse Supports. 670
Load Factor for First Natural

Vanes 2mm Thick Vanes 1mm Thick 620

570
Mode of Vibration.

520
470
Figure 11: Maximum Stresses For Five Cascade 420
Box Configurations. 370
320
4.2.2 Modal Analyses. 270
220
170
Figure 12 shows the first vibrational mode 120
shapes for the five different cascade box 4 3 2 1 0
configurations. For the designs with four, three, Number of Transverse Supports.
and two transverse supports the first natural mode Vanes 2mm Thick Vanes 1mm Thick
shape includes the deformation of both the vanes
and the thicker end section which is free to move
under the action of the applied loads. The cascade Figure 13: Load Factors Required for First natural
structure vibrates as a whole. For the concepts with Mode of Vibration For Five Cascade Box
less than two supports, the first mode is more Configurations.

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 6

 the case with the idealised shell models
The minimum load factor required to cause representing the cascade vanes.
vibration at the natural frequency, is 198 for the
concept with no transverse supports. When the 4.3.2.2 Idealisation of Loads
surround, transverse support and vane thicknesses The maximum vane displacements predicted
were reduced by half, the load factors required for using the idealised, six point load distributions on
the first vibrational mode are all reduced. With a the shell models, differed by less than 5% when
reduction in component thickness the cascade compared to the values obtained using the full
structure is now less stiff and the first natural mode twenty five point load distribution.
of vibration occurs at a lower air speed. The load
factors indicate that the air speed required to cause 4.0 Discussion
the cascade box to vibrate at its natural frequency
are still above the operational speed used for this The main aim of this work is to develop
analysis. For the reduced component thickness, the integrated design methodologies for a thrust
minimum load factor required to cause vibration at reverser cascade using simple, low level models
the natural frequency, is now 123.5 for the concept and analysis methods, so that unsuitable design
with no transverse supports, a drop of 37.6% when concepts can be ruled out as early as possible in the
compared to the original component thickness. design process when fundamental design changes
are less costly, before commitment is made to more
4.3 Sources of Error complex and time consuming simulations.
Although a jet engine part has been chosen as the
4.3.1 Aerodynamic Simulation subject for this work, the methodologies will be
equally applicable to any complex aerospace
Experiments have been carried out on a component where structural performance is a key
40% scale, 30o sector model of the Bombardier requirement.
Aerospace Shorts thrust reverser design[9]. For the A number of cascade box concepts have been
case where the thrust reverser was fully opened, the devised with a view to reducing weight, having
results showed that the resultant axial force on the taken into account stress and deflection levels as
trans-cowl was within 7.5% of the value predicted well as vibrational considerations. The approach to
using the CFD simulation. This showed that the reducing weight includes removing transverse
idealised, two dimensional CFD model could supports from a cascade box and reducing the
accurately predict thrust reverser performance and thickness of the cascade box surround, transverse
that the pressures extracted from the aerodynamic supports and vanes.
simulation for use in the structural model, were also In order to arrive at a final design, key
accurate. performance criteria must be set so that a line can
be drawn between designs that can progress beyond
4.3.2 Structural Simulation the concept stage and designs that simply, are not
suitable. In this case the cascade box concepts
Earlier work[1,10] has shown that the were assessed in terms of minimising component
combined affects of various idealisations used on weight for a limiting value of vane displacement,
beam, shell and solid element structural models, material yield stress and the possibility of structural
result on predicted cascade vane displacements vibration at a natural frequency.
which are within a 4% results margin. For this Previous work involving data exchange between
work, shell elements were used for the structural aerodynamic and structural simulations has shown
models because they offered the flexibility of that vane deflections of up to 0.4mm have a
changing section thicknesses without the need for minimal effect on thrust reverser performance,
geometry changes during pre-processing. causing a reduction in total reverse thrust of only
0.28%[2]. The limiting value of vane displacement
4.3.2.1 Element Selection was therefore set at 0.4mm. A typical, minimum
A benchmark test carried out on a simply value for the yield stress of aluminium alloy is
supported beam model using identical material, 250MPa.
geometry and load data, showed that the When cascade weight is reduced by removing
displacements predicted using beam, shell and solid transverse support members from the cascade
element types are within 0.3% of the value obtained structure, a minimum of two transverse supports are
using theoretical calculations. The use of beam, required to keep the maximum vane displacement
shell or solid element types in themselves does not below the limiting value of 0.4mm. This applies
introduce significant errors to a structural analyses. for a 2mm thickness for the cascade vanes and it
This applies as long as the aspect ratio results in a 1.6% weight saving in a single cascade
(length:width:height) of the structure is suited to box. Only the four transverse support cascade
representation by a particular element type, as was concept satisfies the 0.4mm maximum allowable

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 7

displacement criterion at the 1mm vane thickness. 2. For a cascade box design with four
This results in a 49% weight saving. This shows transverse supports, reducing the thickness of the
that a general reduction in component thickness is a cascade surround, transverse supports and vanes,
more effective way of reducing weight than keeps the maximum displacement below a limiting
removing structural members altogether. Only four value of 0.4mm. This results in a 49% reduction in
of the ten cascade concepts have satisfied the the weight of a single cascade box.
0.4mm maximum deflection requirement.
Of the four design concepts that passed the 3. Modal analyses show that the operational
limiting displacement requirement, the maximum air speed for the thrust reverser design used for this
stress levels for the three remaining 2mm vane work, was significantly lower than the speeds
concepts are all below the typical, minimum yield required to cause the cascade box concepts to
stress for aluminium alloy of 250MPa. The factor vibrate at their natural frequencies.
of safety against material yield for the two
transverse support concept is 5.5. The factor of 4. Based on the design criteria of minimum
safety against material yield for the one remaining weight, limiting value of displacement, acceptable
concept with 1mm vane thickness, is 4.32. factor of safety against material yield and
Modal analyses show that the operational air likelihood of structural vibration at a natural
speed for the thrust reverser design used for this frequency, it is possible to make a 60% reduction in
work, was significantly lower than the speeds suitable cascade design concepts relatively early in
required to cause the cascade box concepts to the conceptual design phase.
vibrate at their natural frequencies. This applied to
all ten of the cascade designs. For the concepts References.
with two or more transverse supports, the cascade
[1]
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less than two transverse supports the first mode is R. Cooper, D. Monaghan, C.G. Armstrong, S.
more localised and is confined to individual vanes. Raghunathan, ‘Investigation of Weight
When the surround, transverse support and vane Reduction in a Thrust Reverser Cascade Using
thicknesses are reduced by half, the load factors Aerodynamic and Structural Integration’. Paper
required for the first vibrational mode are all Reference: AIAA-2003-1576. American
reduced. With a reduction in component thickness Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 44th
the cascade structure is now less stiff and the first AIAA/ ASME/AHS Structures, Structural
natural mode of vibration occurs at a lower air Dynamics and Materials Conference, Norfolk,
speed. The load factors indicate that the air speed Virginia, April, 2003.
required to cause the cascade box to vibrate at its
[2]
natural frequency, are still above the operational Aboulafia R., “Industry Insights: Fast
speed used for this analysis. Becomes Cheap”. Aerospace America,
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limiting value of displacement, acceptable factor of Astronautics, March 2003, pp 16-18.
safety against material yield and likelihood of
[3]
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at this stage, is 1mm thick cascade vanes with four Optimisation Methodology’. American Institute
transverse supports. Before the cascade design is of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 44th
finalised it would be prudent to take the four AIAA/ASME/AHS Structures, Structural
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requirement, through to the next stage because the Virginia, April, 2003
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[4]
flutter, have not been ruled out. This 60% Broede, J, “Saving Costs in Design,
reduction in suitable cascade design concepts will Manufacturing and Operation of Aero Engine
represent a considerable time and cost saving when Parts”, The Aeronautical Journal, November
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[5]
Asbury S. C., Yetter J. A., “ Static
5.0 Conclusions Performance of Six Innovative Thrust
Reverser Concepts for Subsonic Transport
1. For the limiting value of vane Applications”, NASA/TM-2000-210300,
displacement of 0.4mm, a minimum of two July 2000.
transverse supports are required. This results in a
[6]
1.6% weight saving in a single cascade box. Trapp, L. G., Olivera, G. L., ‘Aircraft Thrust
Reverser Cascade Configuration Evaluation
Through CFD’. Paper Reference: AIAA-2003-

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 8

0723. American Institute of Aeronautics &
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Kermode, A. C., ‘Flight Without Formulae’.
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[8]
Garrison, P., ‘”Flutter” – An Oddly Gentle
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[9]
Yao, H., Benard, E., Cooper, R. K.,
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[10]
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Armstrong, S. Raghunathan, D. Riordan, G.
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