ATPG

ATPG problem
Example
Algorithms
Multi-valued algebra
D-algorithm
Podem
Other algorithms
ATPG system
Summary

Copyright 2001, Agrawal & Bushnell 1

 ATPG Problem
ATPG: Automatic test pattern generation
Given
A circuit (usually at gate-level)
A fault model (usually stuck-at type)
Find
A set of input vectors to detect all modeled faults.
Core solution: Find a test vector for a given fault.
Combine the “core solution” with a fault
simulator into an ATPG system.

Copyright 2001, Agrawal & Bushnell 2

 What is a Test?
Fault activation
Fault effect
X Combinational circuit
1
0
0 1/0 1/0
Primary inputs
1 Primary outputs
(PI)
0 (PO)
1
X
X

Path sensitization
Stuck-at-0 fault

Copyright 2001, Agrawal & Bushnell 3

 Multiple-Valued Algebras
Symbol Alternative Fault-free Faulty
Representation circuit Circuit

D 1/0 1 0
D 0/1 0 1
Roth’s
0 0/0 0 0
Algebra
1 1/1 1 1
X X/X X X
G0 0/X 0 X
Muth’s
G1 1/X 1 X
Additions
F0 X/0 X 0
F1 X/1 X 1

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 An ATPG Example
1 Fault activation
2 Path sensitization
3 Line justification

1
D

Copyright 2001, Agrawal & Bushnell 5

 ATPG Example (Cont.)
1 Fault activation
2 Path sensitization
3 Line justification
1
D
D
1 D
D
0
1

Copyright 2001, Agrawal & Bushnell 6

 ATPG Example (Cont.)
1 Fault activation
2 Path sensitization
3 Line justification
1
D
D
1 D Conflict
0 D
1
1
1
1

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 ATPG Example (Cont.)
1 Fault activation
Backtrack 2 Path sensitization
3 Line justification

0 D
1 D
D

1 D 1
D

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 ATPG Example (Cont.)
1 Fault activation
2 Path sensitization
3 Line justification

0 D
1 D
D

1 D 1
D
1

Test found
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 D-Algorithm (Roth 1967)
Use D-algebra
Activate fault
Place a D or D at fault site
Justify all signals
Repeatedly propagate D-chain toward POs through a gate
Justify all signals
Backtrack if
A conflict occurs, or
All D-chains die
Stop when
D or D at a PO, i.e., test found, or
Search exhausted, no test possible

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 Example: Fault A sa0
Step 1 – Fault activation – Set A = 1

D
1 D

D-frontier = {e, h}

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 Example Continued
Step 2 – D-Drive – Set f = 0

0
D
1 D D

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 Example Continued
Step 3 – D-Drive – Set k = 1

1
D
0
D
1 D
D

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 Example Continued

Step 4 – Consistency – Set g = 1

1
1 D
0
D
1 D D

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 Example Continued
Step 5 – Consistency – f = 0 Already set

1
1
D
0
D
1 D D

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 Example Continued
Step 6 – Consistency – Set c = 0, Set e = 0

1
0 1
D
0
0
D
1 D D

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 Example: Test Found
Step 7 – Consistency – Set B = 0
Test: A = 1, B = 0, C = 0, D = X

X
1
0 1 D
0 0
0
D
1 D D

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 Podem (Goel, 1981)
Podem: Path oriented decision making
Step 1: Define an objective (fault activation, D-drive, or line
justification)
Step 2: Backtrace from site of objective to PIs (use
testability measures guidance) to determine a value for a PI
Step 3: Simulate logic with new PI value
If objective not accomplished but is possible, then
continue backtrace to another PI (step 2)
If objective accomplished and test not found, then
define new objective (step 1)
If objective becomes impossible, try alternative
backtrace (step 2)
Use X-PATH-CHECK to test whether D-frontier still there –
a path of X’s from a D-frontier to a PO must exist.

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 Podem Example
3. Logic simulation for A=0 2. Backtrace “A=0” 1. Objective “0”

S-a-1

(9, 2)

4. Objective possible but not accomplished

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 Podem Example (Cont.)
6. Logic simulation for A=0, B=0
5. Backtrace “B=0” 1. Objective “0”

0
0
0
S-a-1

0
(9, 2)

7. Objective possible but not accomplished

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 Podem Example (Cont.)
9. Logic simulation for E=0
8. Backtrace “E=0” 1. Objective “0”

0
0
0
0
0
S-a-1

0
(9, 2)

10. Objective possible but not accomplished

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 Podem Example (Cont.)
12. Logic simulation for D=0
1. Objective “0”

0
0
0
0
0
S-a-1

0 0
(9, 2)
0

13. Objective accomplished 11. Backtrace “D=0”

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 An ATPG System
Random pattern
generator

Fault simulator
yes

Fault Random Deterministic

Save coverage patterns ATPG (D-alg.
patterns yes improved? no effective? no or Podem)

Stop if fault coverage goal achieved

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 Summary
Most combinational ATPG algorithms use D-algebra.
D-Algorithm is a complete algorithm:
Finds a test, or
Determines the fault to be redundant
Complexity is exponential in circuit size
Podem is also a complete algorithm:
Works on primary inputs – search space is smaller than that of
D-algorithm
Exponential complexity, but several orders faster than D-
algorithm
More efficient algorithms available – FAN, Socrates, etc.
See, M. L. Bushnell and V. D. Agrawal, Essentials of Electronic
Testing for Digital, Memory and Mixed-Signal VLSI Circuits,
Springer, 2000, Chapter 7.

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 Exercise 2: Lectures 4-6

For the circuit shown above

Determine SCOAP testability measures.
Derive a test for the stuck-at-1 fault at the output of
the AND gate.
Using the parallel fault simulation algorithm,
determine which of the four primary input faults are
detectable by the test derived above.

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 Exercise 2: Answers
■ SCOAP testability measures, (CC0, CC1) CO, are shown below:

(1,1) 4
(2,3) 2
(1,1) 4 (4,2) 0

(1,1) 3
(1,1) 3

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 Exercise 2: Answers Cont.

■ A test for the stuck-at-1 fault shown in the diagram is 00.

0 0 D
D
0 s-a-1

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 Exercise 2: Answers Cont.

■ Parallel fault simulation of four PI faults is illustrated below.

Fault PI2 s-a-1 is detected by the 00 test input.

00100 00000
PI1=0
00001
00001
PI2=0

PI2 s-a-1 detected

00001
00001
No fault

PI2 s-a-1
PI1 s-a-0
PI1 s-a-1
PI2 s-a-0

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