MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

LESSON 3

prepared by:
ALLYSON Q. FLORENDO, RRT
 SIGNAL PRODUCTION
The structure of an atom is
often compared with the
structure of the solar system,
with the sun representing
the central atomic nucleus
and the planets representing
the orbiting electrons.
 NUCLEI SUITABLE • MRI uses properties of the nucleus
FOR MRI to generate the signal that contains
the information used to construct
Hydrogen 1
1H
the image.
Carbon 6
13C
• Clinical MRI scanners "image"
Nitrogen 7
15N
hydrogen because it is the most
Oxygen 8
17O
abundant element in the body and
Potassium 19
39K
is the strongest nuclear magnet on a
Fluorine 9
19F
per-nucleus basis.
Sodium 11
23Na
31P Elements with odd atomic numbers, such as
Phosphorous 15 hydrogen, have magnetic properties causing
them to act like tiny bar magnets.
• Ordinarily, in the absence of a strong
magnetic field, these protons point in
random directions, creating no net
magnetization.
• At this point they are not useful for
imaging.
• If the body is placed within a strong
uniform magnetic field, the protons
will attempt to align themselves in
one of two orientations, with the field
(parallel) or against the field
(antiparallel).
• A slight majority will align with, or
parallel to, the main magnetic field,
also called the longitudinal plane,
causing the tissues to be
magnetized or have a slight net
magnetization.
• The protons do not line up precisely
with the external field but at an
angle to the field causing them to
rotate around the direction of the
magnetic field in a manner similar
to the wobbling of a spinning top.
• This wobbling motion is called
precession and occurs at a specific
frequency (rate) for a given atom's
nucleus in a magnetic field of a
specific strength.
• These precessing protons can only
absorb energy if that energy is
presented at same frequency they
are wobbling.
• In MRI, radiofrequency (RF) pulses
at that specific precessional
frequency are used.
• The absorption of energy by the precessing
protons is referred to as resonance.
• This resonant frequency, called the Larmor
frequency, varies depending on the field
strength of the MRI scanner.
• At a field strength of 1.5 tesla, the frequency
is approximately 63 MHz; at 1 tesla, the
frequency is approximately 42 MHz; at 0.5
tesla, the frequency is approximately 21
MHz; and at 0.2 tesla, the frequency is
approximately 8 MHz.
• When the RF pulse, at the Larmor
frequency, is applied, the protons absorb the
energy resulting in a reorientation of the net
tissue magnetization into a plane
perpendicular to the main field. This is
known as the transverse plane.
• The protons in the transverse plane
also precess at the same resonant
frequency.
• The precessing protons (a moving
magnet) in the tissues create an
electrical current, the MRI signal, in the
receiving coil or antenna.
• This follows Faraday's law of
induction, in which a moving magnetic
field (hydrogen protons) induces
electrical current in a coil of wire (RF
antenna or RF coil).
• The MRI signal is picked up by this
sensitive antenna or coil, amplified, and
processed by a computer to produce a
sectional image of the body.
• This image, similar to the image
produced by a CT scanner, is a digital
image that is viewed on a computer
monitor.
• Because this is a digital image, it can be
manipulated, or postprocessed, to
produce the most acceptable image.
• Additional processing can be performed
on a three-dimensional workstation if
applicable, and hard copies can be
produced if necessary.
 • Many other odd-numbered nuclei in the body
NUCLEI SUITABLE are being used in MRI.
FOR MRI • Nuclei from elements such as phosphorus and
sodium may provide useful or differing diagnostic
Hydrogen 1 H
1
information than hydrogen nuclei, particularly in
Carbon 6 C
13 efforts to understand the metabolism of normal
Nitrogen 15N and abnormal tissues.
7
Oxygen 17O • Metabolic changes may prove to be more
8 sensitive and specific in detecting abnormalities
Potassium 19
39K
than the more physical and structural changes
Fluorine 9
19F recognized by hydrogen-imaging MRI.
Sodium 11
23Na • Nonhydrogen nuclei may also be used for
Phosphorous 31P combined imaging and spectroscopy, in which
15 small volumes of tissue may be analyzed for
chemical content.
 PRECESSION
• MRI is possible because a
magnetic nucleus precesses
(spins or wobbles) about a
strong static (unchanging)
magnetic field, known as B0.
• The phenomenon of
precession occurs
whenever a spinning object
is acted upon by an outside
force.
• A spinning top, when acted
on by the force of gravity,
precesses, or wobbles,
about the line defined by
the direction of gravitational
force.
• In MRI application, a
spinning proton (hydrogen
nucleus) precesses when
placed in a strong magnetic
field.
• A third example is the planet Earth
itself, which precesses because of
the interplay between forces of
the sun and the planets.
• The rate of precession of a proton
in a magnetic field increases as the
strength of the magnetic field
increases.
• The rate of precession of protons
in an MRI system is difficult to
imagine.
• Hydrogen protons precess at a
constant rate of 42.57 MHZ/T
(known as the gyromagnetic
ratio).
• Most imaging facilities are
equipped with 1.5-tesla (1.5-T)
superconducting magnets.
• This means that hydrogen protons
placed within the magnetic field The gyromagnetic ratio, often denoted by the
are precessing at 63.86 MHZ symbol γ (gamma) is the ratio of the magnetic
momentum in a particle to its angular
(63.86 million cycles per second). momentum.
• In comparison, a spinning top is shown
to precess at a rate of one cycle per
second.
• Each RF coil must be calibrated to the
precessional frequency of hydrogen
protons for imaging purposes.
• If the RF pulse emitted from the coil
does not match the precessional
frequency of the hydrogen protons in
the body, then energy will not be
transferred to the proton.
• Consequently, no imaging signal will be
generated.
 NET MAGNETIZATION VECTOR
• Once the patient has been
placed within the MRI scanner,
the precessing hydrogen
protons align either with or
against the main magnetic field
(B0).
• Protons aligned with B0 (spin up)
are considered low-energy
protons because they require
less energy to point in the same
direction as the main static field.
• Protons aligned against B0 face the
opposite direction of the main
static field and are considered high-
energy protons (spin down), which
are not used for imaging.
• Simply put, it requires much more
energy to swim against a current
than with it.
• In clinical scanning, there are
always more low-energy protons, This measurable difference is known as the
which are used in MR imaging, net magnetization vector (NMV).

than high-energy protons.

• MRI scanners continue to increase in
static field strength (i.e., replacing a
0.5-T with a 1.5-T magnet).
• As static field strengths increase, it
becomes more difficult for protons to
remain in the high-energy state,
resulting in a larger number of usable
low-energy protons and a greater
NMV.
• With the greater NMV, more protons
are manipulated for imaging. A higher
overall signal is then received by the
RF coil, resulting in a better image.
 RESONANCE
• To create an image, the low-energy
precessing protons in the NMV must
be pushed away from alignment with
B0.
• Protons aligned with B0 are said to lie
in the longitudinal plane, also known
as the z axis.
• If an RF pulse with a matching
precessional frequency is applied to
these protons, the protons will shift
away from the longitudinal plane and
into the transverse plane (xy axis).
• This occurs because the RF
pulse has deposited energy
into the low-energy protons,
causing them to become
excited and shift into a higher
energy state.
• This process is known as
resonance.
• Resonance will only occur in
protons with matching
precessional frequencies.
• This means that for clinical
MRI scanners, only hydrogen
protons resonate because the
RF pulses are emitted from the
RF coil at the precessional
frequency of hydrogen.
• Any other protons in the area
(e.g, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen)
will not resonate because they
each have a different
precessional frequency.
 RELAXATION
• Before receiving the RF excitation • As soon as the RF pulse is turned
pulse, the hydrogen protons are in off, the nuclei begin to return to a
alignment with B0 and precessing random configuration in a process
(spinning at the same frequency) called relaxation.
randomly in different phases (facing
different directions). • As the nuclei relax, the MRI signal
received from the precessing nuclei
• An RF pulse is applied to the precessing diminishes.
nuclei for a very brief period of time.
• This excitation pulse accomplishes two • The rate of relaxation relays
things: it forces the precessing protons information about normal tissue
into the transverse plane and away and pathologic processes within the
from B0, and it forces the protons to tissues, because normal tissue and
precess in phase (facing the same pathologic processes relax at
direction). different rates.
• The appearance of tissue
on the MRI image is
dependent on the
relaxation rate.
• Relaxation may be divided
into two categories,
commonly referred to as
T1 and T2 relaxation.
 T1 Relaxation
• Following the RF excitation
pulse, precessing protons are
pushed away from the
longitudinal plane and into
the transverse plane.
• This is necessary for the MRI
scanner to "see" the protons.
• Precessing protons within the
transverse plane create a
voltage in the receiver coil,
which translates to signal for
the MRI image.
 • As previously noted, the
protons will not stay in the
transverse plane, but will
instead relax back into the
longitudinal plane.
• This process is known by many
names: T1 relaxation,
longitudinal relaxation, spin
lattice relaxation, or T1
recovery.
T1 relaxation is defined as the time it takes for
• As more protons experience T1
63% of the longitudinal magnetization to recover
in the tissue (37% remains in the transverse
relaxation, the MRI signal
plane).
decreases in strength.
T2 Relaxation
• Occurring at the same time as
T1 relaxation, the randomly
precessing protons are forced by
the RF pulse to precess together,
or in phase (phase coherence),
to create transverse
magnetization.
• The increase in the number of
protons precessing in phase
subsequently increases the
signal received by the receiver
coil, resulting in higher signal
and a better image.
• However, just as with T1 relaxation,
once the RF pulse is removed, the
protons will lose phase coherence.
This loss of phase coherence is called
T2 relaxation, spin-spin relaxation, or
T2 decay.
• Similarly to T1 relaxation, MRI signal
decreases as more protons
experience T2 decay and spin out of
phase (phase incoherence).
• T2 relaxation is defined as the time it
takes for 63% of the transverse
magnetization to be lost (37%
remains in phase).
• The rate of T1 and T2 relaxation
changes after exposure to the RF
pulse constitutes the primary
basis from which the MRI image
is reconstructed.
• However, a third factor, spin
density, also plays a minor role in
determining the appearance of
the MRI image.
 Spin Density
• A stronger signal is received if the
quantity of hydrogen nuclei that are
present in a given volume of tissue is
increased.
• This quantity is called the proton
density, or spin density.
• Spin density is important because an
adequate number of protons is
required to produce a signal.
• For example, the
ventilated airways and
alveolar spaces within the
lungs are rarely imaged in
MRI because of the sparse
number of hydrogen
protons found within air.
• To image airways with
MRI, hyperpolarized gas
(xenon or helium) may be
introduced to increase the
proton density.
 SUMMARY
• MRI contrast resolution is highly dependent on MRI
signal strength, as received by an antenna or receiver
coil.
• A stronger signal results in an improved contrast
resolution on the final image.
• The strength of the MRI signal is determined by the
number of nuclei per unit volume (spin density) and
the orientation of the nuclei with respect to the static
MRI
magnetic field (T1 relaxation) and with respect to
each other (T2 relaxation).
• Other factors such as flowing blood or the
presence of contrast material also play a
role but are beyond the scope of this
discussion.
• MRI is a fundamentally different way of
looking at the body compared to other
imaging modalities.
• In radiography, the physical density (grams
per milliliter) and atomic number of
tissues help to determine the appearance
of the image.
• The rate of recovery of atoms from their interactions with
x-rays is not important in radiography.
• However, the rate of recovery of nuclei after the
application of radio waves is the most important factor in
determining the MRI image.
• This factor provides the basis for the MRI image.
• High tissue density such as that seen in dense bone
structure does not result in image contrast in MRI.
• Cortical bone does not produce an MRI signal because the
hydrogen nuclei are tightly bound within the bony matrix.
• As seen on this sagittal head MRI scan, soft tissues such as gray
and white matter of the brain, the brainstem, and the corpus
callosum are clearly visualized through the response of the nuclei
in these tissues.
 Appearance of Anatomy
T1-WEIGHTED AND T2-WEIGHTED IMAGES
• Although T1 and T2 relaxation occur
simultaneously, they are independent of
each other.
• At 1.0 T, the T1 of most biologic tissue is
in the range of 200 to 2500 ms.
T1-WEIGHTED AND T2-WEIGHTED IMAGES
• T2 relaxation in most tissues ranges from
20 to 300 ms, although water has a T2 of
approximately 2500 ms (see comparison
images in Figs. 20.111 and 20.112).
• These differences in relaxation times
enable the computer to distinguish
among different types of tissues.
• The appearance of a specific type of tissue on
MRI images is not related to x-ray beam
attenuation, as with CT imaging, because x-ray
energy is not used.
• Rather, MRI reflects the rate and strength of
the signal being emitted during relaxation by
the stimulated nuclei of specific tissues.
 APPEARANCE OF T1-WEIGHTED AND
T-2 WEIGTED IMAGES
TISSUE TYPE T1 T2
Cortical Bone Dark Dark
Red Bone Marrow Light gray Dark gray
Air Dark Dark
Fat Bright Dark*
White brain matter Light gray Dark gray
Gray brain matter Dark gray Light gray
CSF and water Dark Bright
Muscle Dark gray Dark gray
Vessels Dark Dark
 Relaxation Versus Contrast Weighting
• T1 and T2 relaxation should not
be confused with T1 and T2
contrast weighting.
• T1 and T2 relaxation refers to the
physical properties of tissue and
how quickly the tissue returns to
its normal state following
introduction of RF energy.
• T1 and T2 contrast weighting
describes the imaging appearance
of fat and water on the final
image.