Arguments Containing Compound the compound statement.

The truth value of

Statements the conjunction of two statements is
(Simple and Compound Statements) completely determined by the truth value of its
conjuncts.
All statements can be divided into two kinds:
Simple and Compound Take note: a conjunction is true if both its
Simple statement: does not contain any other conjuncts are true, but false otherwise. For this
statement as a component part mean a conjunction is a truth – functional
Compound statement: does contain another compound statement, and its conjuncts are
statement as a component part truth – functional component of it.

Ex: Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons will Since conjunctions are truth – functionally
be discontinued or this planet will become compound statements, our dot symbol is a
inhabitable. truth – functional connective. Given any two
statements p and q there are just four possible
It is a compound statement that contains, as its sets of truth values they can have and in every
components, the two simple statements: case the truth value of their conjunction
1. Atmospheric testing of nuclear p ∙ q∨ p Ʌ q is uniquely determined. The four
weapons will be discontinued. possible cases can be exhibited as follows:
2. This planet will become inhabitable.
Conjunction: a compound statement formed by In case p is true and q is true, p ∙ q is true
inserting the word ‘and’ between two In case p is true and q is false, p ∙ q is false
statements. Two statements so combined are In case p is false and q is true, p ∙ q is false
called conjuncts. In case p is false and q is false, p ∙ q is false
Ex: Roses are red and violets are blue.
Representing the truth values true and false by
The word ‘and’ has other uses: the capital letters “T” and “F”, respectively, the
Ex: Castor and Pollux were twins. way in which the truth value of a conjunction is
determined by the truth values of its conjuncts
It is not compound, but a simple statement can be displayed more briefly by means of a
asserting a relationship. truth table as follows:
P q p∙q
We introduce the dot (∙) or ( Ʌ) as a special T T T
symbol for combining statements conjunctively. T F F
Using this notation the preceding conjunction is F T F
written: F F F
p ∙ q∨ p Ʌ q Since it specifies the truth value of p ∙ q in every
possible case, this truth table can be defining
Every statement is either true or false, so we the dot symbol. Other English words such as:
can speak of the truth value of a statement, Moreover Also Although
where the truth value of a true statement is Furthermore Nevertheless
true and the truth value of false statement is
false. There are two broad categories into which Even the comma and semicolon are also used to
compound statements can be divided, conjoin the two statements into a single one,
according to whether or not there is anything and all of them can be translated into the dot
other than the truth values of its component symbol, so far as the truth table as concerned.
statements that determines the truth value of
Negation Statement
The statement “It is not the case that lead is Extra payment is generally required if you want
heavier than gold” is also a compound, being more than one beverage, on the other hand:
the negation (or denial or contradictory) of its
single component statement “lead is heavier A waiter who offers “cream or sugar” uses the
than gold”. We introduce the symbol( ) , called a word or in an inclusive sense.
curl or a tilde to symbolize negation. There are (You are entitled to both cream and sugar if you
often alternative formulations in English of the wish to have them)
negation of a given statement. Thus where L
symbolize the statement “lead is heavier than In Latin the word ‘vel’ expresses the inclusive
gold”, the different statements are: sense of the word ‘or’ and the word ‘aut’
expresses the exclusive sense. It is customary to
It is not the case that lead is heavier than gold. use the first letter of ‘vel’ to symbolize ‘or’ in its
It is false that lead is heavier than gold. inclusive sense. Where p and q are any two
It is not true that lead is heavier than gold. statements whatever, their weak or inclusive
Lead is not heavier than gold. disjunction is written p v q . The symbol ‘ v ’,
called a wedge or a vee, is a truth – functional
All indifferently symbolized as L. connective, and is defined by the following
More generally, where p is any statement truth table:
whatever, its negation is written p.
Since the negation of a true statement is false P q pv q
and the negation of a false statement is true, T T T
we can take the following truth as defining the T F T
curl symbol: F T T
p p F F F
T F An obviously valid argument containing a
F T disjunction is the following Disjunctive
Syllogism:
Disjunctive Statements
When two statements are combined The United Nations will become more
disjunctively by inserting the word ‘or’ between responsible or there will be a third world war.
them, the resulting compound statement is a The United Nations will not become more
disjunction (or alternation), and the two responsible.
statements so combined are called disjuncts (or Therefore, there will be a third world war.
alternatives).
Use of Unless as Expressing the Disjunction
In the case of disjunction ----- statements of the of Two Statements
form ‘p or q’ ---- intuitive logic offers two Ex: Our resources will soon be exhausted unless
alternative interpretations. In ordinary language more recycling of materials is effected.
or is sometimes used in:
Exclusive sense (p or q but not both) Unless more recycling of materials is effected
Inclusive sense (p or q or both) our resources will soon be exhausted.

Ex: A writer who says you may have “coffee, Can be expressed as:
tea, or milk” uses the word “or” in an exclusive Either more recycling of materials is effected or
sense. our resources will soon be exhausted.

And symbolized as: M v E

 Uses of Parenthesis, Brackets, and Braces p ∙ q v r discussed in the preceding paragraph.
Those are familiar for punctuating
mathematical expressions is familiar. In the Not all conjunctions are formulated by explicitly
absence of a special convention, no number is placing the word ‘and’ between complete
uniquely denoted by the expression ‘6+ 9÷ 3 ’, sentences, as in:
although when punctuation makes clear how its ‘Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet.’
constituents are to be grouped, it denotes It expresses as:
either 5 or 9. ‘Charlie is neat and sweet.’

Punctuation is needed to resolve ambiguity in The familiar:

the language of symbolic logic too, since ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill.’
compound statements may themselves be Can be express as:
combined to produce more complicated ‘Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.’
compounds.
It is the same with disjunctions:
Ambiguity is present in p ∙ q v r , which could be: ‘Either Alice or Betty will be elected.’
The conjunction of p with q v r or Express briefly as:
The disjunction of p ∙ q with r ‘Either Alice will be elected or Betty will be
These two different senses are unambiguously elected.’
given by different punctuations:
p ∙( q v r ) Another is:
( p ∙ q) v r ‘Charlene will be either secretary or treasurer.’
In case p and q are both false and r is true. Express as:
The first punctuated expression is false ‘Charlene will be secretary or Charlene will be
(Since its first conjuncts is false) treasurer’.
The second punctuated expression is true
(Since its second disjuncts is true) Negation of a Disjunction
- Is often expressed by using the phrase
Another ambiguity is p v q , which might mean: neither – nor.
( p) v q or Thus the disjunction:
( pv q) ‘Either Alice or Betty will be elected.’
This is resolved, by our convention does apply
to the first component p rather than to the Is denied by the statement:
larger expression p v q . ‘Neither Alice nor Betty will be elected.’

The word ‘either’ has a variety of different uses The disjunction would be symbolized as:
in English. Perhaps the most useful function of Av B
the word ‘either’ is to punctuate some
compound statements. Thus, the sentence: Its negation:
More stringent antipollution measures will be ( A v B ) Or as A ∙ B
enacted and the laws will be strictly enforced This means that at least one of two statements
or the quality of life will be disregarded still is true is to assert that both of the two
further. statements are false.
can have its ambiguity resolved in one direction Order of the Words ‘Both’ and ‘Not’
by placing the word ‘either’ at its beginning, or There is a great difference between:
in other direction by inserting the word ‘either’ Alice and Betty will not both elected.
right after the word ‘and’. It is the same as And
 Alice and Betty will both not be elected.
In symbols:
( A ∙ B)
And
A∙ B
Prepared by: Mr. Allen Vic Eredia