Basic Thermo

Heat energy and transfer

This chapter defines sensible and latent heat and
• understand change of state from solid to liquid
provides the appropriate formulae to calculate the
to gas, and vice versa
amount of energy required to convert a solid to a
• distinguish between sensible and latent heat
gas and vice-versa, and also for other combinations
• define specific latent heat of fusion
of solids, liquids and gases.€This information is often
• define specific latent heat of vaporisation
required by engineers if they are required to design
• recognise typical values of latent heats of fusion
an artefact (say) to convert ice to steam via the state of
and vaporisation
liquid water.€ An example of a household requirement
• calculate quantity of heat Q using Q = mL
of when this type of calculation is required is that
• describe the principle of operation of a simple
of the simple domestic kettle.€ When the designer
refrigerator
is required to design a domestic electric kettle, it is
important that the design is such that the powering
arrangement is (just) enough to boil the required
amount of water€in a reasonable time. If the powering
were too low, you may have great difficulty in boiling 1 Introduction
the water when the kettle is full.€ Similar calculations
are required for large water containers, which are Heat is a form of energy and is measured in joules.
required to boil large quantities of water for other Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a
uses, including for kitchens in schools, to make tea/ substance. Heat and temperature are thus not the same
coffee,€etc, and for€large hotels, which have many uses thing. For example, twice the heat energy is needed to
for hot water.€ The chapter also describes the three boil a full container of water than half a container – that
main methods of heat transfer, namely conduction, is, different amounts of heat energy are needed to cause
convection and radiation, together with their uses. an equal rise in the temperature of different amounts of
the same substance.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: Temperature is measured either (i) on the Celsius
• distinguish between heat and temperature (°C) scale (formerly Centigrade), where the tem-
• appreciate that temperature is measured on the perature at which ice melts, i.e. the freezing point of
Celsius or the thermodynamic scale water, is taken as 0°C and the point at which water boils
• convert temperatures from Celsius into Kelvin under normal atmospheric pressure is taken as 100°C,
and vice versa or (ii) on the thermodynamic scale, in which the unit
• recognise several temperature measuring de- of temperature is the kelvin (K). The kelvin scale uses
vices the same temperature interval as the Celsius scale but
• define specific heat capacity, c and recognise as its zero takes the ‘absolute zero of temperature’
typical values which is at about – 273°C. Hence,
• calculate the quantity of heat energy Q using kelvin temperature = degree Celsius + 273
Q = mc(t2 – t1)
i.e. â•›K = (°C) + 273

Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850

 226â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
Thus, for example, 0°C = 273 K, 25°C = 298 K and (i) liquid-in-glass thermometer, which uses the
100°C = 373 K expansion of a liquid with increase in tempera-
ture as its principle of operation,
Problem 1.â•… Convert the following temperatures (ii) thermocouples, which use the e.m.f. set up,
into the Kelvin scale: when the junction of two dissimilar metals is
(a) 37°C (b) – 28°C heated,
(iii) resistance thermometer, which uses the change
From above, Kelvin temperature = degree Celsius + 273 in electrical resistance caused by temperature
(a) 37°C corresponds to a Kelvin temperature of change, and
37 + 273, i.e. 310 K (iv) pyrometers, which are devices for measuring
(b) –28°C corresponds to a Kelvin temperature of very high temperatures, using the principle that
–28 + 273, i.e. 245 K all substances emit radiant energy when hot, the
rate of emission depending on their temperature.
Problem 2.â•… Convert the following temperatures
Each of these temperature measuring devices, together
into the Celsius scale:
with others, are described in Chapter
(a) 365 K (b) 213 K

From above, K = (°C) + 273

Hence, degree Celsius = Kelvin temperature –273
3 Specific heat capacity
(a) 365 K corresponds to 365 – 273, i.e. 92°C The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quan-
(b) 213 K corresponds to 213 – 273, i.e. – 60°C tity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of
1 kg of the substance by 1°C. The symbol used for spe-
cific heat capacity is c and the units are J/(kg °C) or
Now try the following Practise Exercise J/(kg K). (Note that these units may also be written as
J kg–1 °C–1 or J kg–1 K–1).
Practise Exercise 1 Further problems on Some typical values of specific heat capacity for the
temperature scales range of temperature 0°C to 100°C include:

1. Convert
 the following temperatures into the Water 4190 J/(kg °C),
Kelvin scale: Ice 2100 J/(kg °C)
(a) 51°C (b) –78°C Aluminium 950 J/(kg °C),
(c) 183°C
Copper 390 J/(kg °C)
Iron 500 J/(kg °C),
2. Convert
 the following temperatures into the
Celsius scale: Lead 130 J/(kg °C)
(a) 307 K (b) 237 K Hence to raise the temperature of 1 kg of iron by 1°C
(c) 415 K requires 500 J of energy, to raise the temperature of
5 kg of iron by 1°C requires (500 × 5) J of energy, and
to raise the temperature of 5 kg of iron by 40°C re-
quires (500 × 5 × 40) J of energy, i.e. 100 kJ.
In general, the quantity of heat energy, Q, required
to raise a mass m kg of a substance with a specific heat
2 The measurement of capacity of c J/(kg °C), from temperature t1 °C to t2 °C
temperature is given by:

A thermometer is an instrument that measures Q = mc(t2 – t1) joules

temperature. Any substance that possesses one or more
Problem 3.â•… Calculate the quantity of heat
Part Four

properties that vary with temperature can be used to

required to raise the temperature of 5 kg of water
measure temperature. These properties include changes in
from 0°C to 100°C. Assume the specific heat ca-
length, area or volume, electrical resistance or in colour.
pacity of water is 4200 J/(kg °C).
Examples of temperature measuring devices include:
 Heat energy and transferâ•… 227

Quantity of heat energy,

of 20°C. If the specific heat capacity of aluminium
Q = mc(t2 – t1) is 950 J(kg°C), determine its final temperature.
= 5 kg × 4200 J/(kg °C) × (100 – 0)°C
= 5 × 4200 × 100 Quantity of heat,
= 2100000 J or 2100 kJ or 2.1 MJ Q = mc(t2 – t1), hence,
5.7 × 106 J = 30 kg × 950 J/(kg °C) × (t2 – 20)°C
Problem 4.â•… A block of cast iron having a mass of 5.7 × 10 6
from which, (t2 – 20) = = 200
10 kg cools from a temperature of 150°C to 50°C. 30 × 950
How much energy is lost by the cast iron? Assume
Hence, the final temperature, t2 =
the specific heat capacity of iron is 500 J/(kg °C).  200 + 20
= 220°C
Quantity of heat energy, Problem 8.â•… A copper container of mass 500 g
Q = mc(t2 – t1) contains 1 litre of water at 293 K. Calculate the
= 10 kg × 500 J/(kg °C) × (50 – 150)°C quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
the water and container to boiling point, assuming
= 10 × 500 × (–100)
there are no heat losses. Assume that the specific
= –â•›500000 Jâ•… orâ•… –â•›500 kJâ•… orâ•… –â•›0.5 MJ heat capacity of copper is 390 J/(kg K), the specific
(Note that the minus sign indicates that heat is given heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ(kg K) and 1 litre of
out or lost). water has a mass of 1 kg.

Problem 5.â•… Some lead having a specific heat Heat is required to raise the temperature of the
capacity of 130 J/(kg °C) is heated from 27°C to water, and also to raise the temperature of the copper
its melting point at 327°C. If the quantity of heat container.
required is 780 kJ, determine the mass of the lead. For the water: m = 1 kg, t1 = 293 K,
t2 = 373 K (i.e. boiling point) and
Quantity of heat, Q = mc(t2 – t1), hence,
â•›c = 4.2 kJ/(kg K)
780 × 103 J = m × 130 J/(kg °C) × (327 – 27)°C
Quantity of heat required for the water is given by:
i.e. 780000 = m × 130 × 300
 kJ 
Qw = mc(t2 – t1) = (1 kg)  4.2
kg K 
780000 (373 – 293) K
from which, mass, m =
130 × 300
kg = 20 kg 
= 4.2 × 80 kJ

Problem 6.â•… 273 kJ of heat energy are required to i.e. Qw = 336 kJ

raise the temperature of 10 kg of copper from 15°C For the copper container: m = 500 g = 0.5 kg,
to 85°C. Determine the specific heat capacity of t1 = 293 K,
copper.
t2 = 373 K and
Quantity of heat, Q = mc(t2 – t1), hence: ╛╛c = 390 J/(kg K)

â•›273 × 103 J = 10 kg × c × (85 – 15)°C = 0.39 kJ(kg K)

where c is the specific heat capacity, Quantity of heat required for the copper container is
given by:
i.e. 273000 = 10 × c × 70
QC = mc(t2 – t1) = (0.5 kg)(0.39 kJ/(kg K)(80 K)
273000
from which, specific heat capacity, c = i.e. QC = 15.6 kJ
10 × 70
Part Four

= 390 J/(kg °C) Total quantity of heat required, Q = Qw + QC

= 336 + 15.6
Problem 7.â•… 5.7 MJ of heat energy are supplied to
30 kg of aluminium that is initially at a temperature = 351.6 kJ
 228â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 2 Further problems

on specific heat
capacity
1. Determine the quantity of heat energy
(in megajoules) required to raise the tem-
perature of 10 kg of water from 0°C to 50°C.
Assume the specific heat capacity of water
is 4200 J/(kg °C).
2. Some copper, having a mass of 20 kg,
cools from a temperature of 120°C to 70°C.
If the specific heat capacity of copper is
390 J/(kg °C), how much heat energy is lost
by the copper ? Figure 1

3. A
 block of aluminium having a specific again remains constant at 100°C, shown as DE, until all
heat capacity of 950 J/(kg °C) is heated the water has vaporised.
from 60°C to its melting point at 660°C. If Continual heating raises the temperature of the
the quantity of heat required is 2.85 MJ, de- steam as shown by EF in the region where the steam is
termine the mass of the aluminium block. termed superheated.
Changes of state from solid to liquid or liquid to gas
4. 20.8 kJ of heat energy is required to raise occur without change of temperature and such changes
the temperature of 2 kg of lead from 16°C to are reversible processes. When heat energy flows to or
96°C. Determine the specific heat capacity from a substance and causes a change of temperature,
of lead. such as between A and B, between C and D and be-
tween E and F in Figure 1, it is called sensible heat
5. 250 kJ of heat energy is supplied to 10 kg (since it can be ‘sensed’ by a thermometer).
of iron which is initially at a temperature of Heat energy which flows to or from a substance
15°C. If the specific heat capacity of iron is while the temperature remains constant, such as be-
500 J/(kg °C) determine its final tempera- tween B and C and between D and E in Figure 20.1, is
ture. called latent heat (latent means concealed or hidden).

Problem 9.â•… Steam initially at a temperature of

130°C is cooled to a temperature of 20°C below
4 Change of state the freezing point of water, the loss of heat energy
being at a constant rate. Make a sketch, and briefly
A material may exist in any one of three states – solid, explain, the expected temperature/time graph rep-
liquid or gas. If heat is supplied at a constant rate to resenting this change.
some ice initially at, say, –30°C, its temperature rises
as shown in Figure 20.1. Initially the temperature in- A temperature/time graph representing the change
creases from –30°C to 0°C as shown by the line AB. It is shown in Figure 20.2. Initially steam cools until it
then remains constant at 0°C for the time BC required reaches the boiling point of water at 100°C. Tempera-
for the ice to melt into water. ture then remains constant, i.e. between A and B, even
When melting commences the energy gained by though it is still giving off heat (i.e. latent heat). When
continual heating is offset by the energy required for all the steam at 100°C has changed to water at 100°C
the change of state and the temperature remains con- it starts to cool again until it reaches the freezing point
Part Four

stant even though heating is continued. When the ice of water at 0°C. From C to D the temperature again
is completely melted to water, continual heating raises remains constant (i.e. latent heat), until all the water
the temperature to 100°C, as shown by CD in Figure is converted to ice. The temperature of the ice then
20.1. The water then begins to boil and the temperature decreases as shown.
 Heat energy and transferâ•… 229

Table 1
Latent heat Melting
of fusion point (°C)
(kJ/kg)

Mercury 11.8 – 39
Lead 22 327
Silver 100 957
Ice 335 0
Aluminium 387 660

Latent heat of Boiling

vaporisation point (°C)
(kJ/kg)

Oxygen 214 – 183

Figure 2
Mercury 286 357
Ethyl alcohol 857 79
Now try the following Practise Exercise Water 2257 100

Practise Exercise 3 A further problem Thus, for example, the heat required to convert 10 kg
on change of state of ice at 0°C to water at 0°C is given by
1. Some
 ice, initially at – 40°C, has heat sup- 10 kg × 335 kJ/kg = 3350 kJ or 3.35 MJ
plied to it at a constant rate until it becomes
superheated steam at 150°C. Sketch a typi- Besides changing temperature, the effects of supplying
cal temperature/time graph expected and use heat to a material can involve changes in dimensions,
it to explain the difference between sensible as well as in colour, state and electrical resistance.
and latent heat. Most substances expand when heated and contract
when cooled, and there are many practical applications
and design implications of thermal movement (see
Chapter 21).

Problem 10.â•… How much heat is needed to melt

5 Latent heats of fusion and completely 12 kg of ice at 0°C ? Assume the latent
vaporisation heat of fusion of ice is 335 kJ/kg.

The specific latent heat of fusion is the heat required Quantity of heat required, Q = mL = 12 kg × 335 kJ/kg
to change 1 kg of a substance from the solid state to
the liquid state (or vice versa) at constant temperature. â•› = 4020 kJ or 4.02 MJ
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the heat re-
Problem 11.â•… Calculate the heat required to con-
quired to change 1 kg of a substance from a liquid to a
vert 5 kg of water at 100°C to superheated steam
gaseous state (or vice versa) at constant temperature.
at 100°C. Assume the latent heat of vaporisation of
The units of the specific latent heats of fusion and
water is 2260 kJ/kg.
vaporisation are J/kg, or more often kJ/kg, and some
typical values are shown in Table 20.1
Quantity of heat required, Q = mL = 5 kg × 2260 kJ/kg
The quantity of heat Q supplied or given out during a
change of state is given by: = 11300 kJ or 11.3 MJ
Part Four

Q = mL Problem 12.â•… Determine the heat energy needed

to convert 5 kg of ice initially at – 20°C completely
where m is the mass in kilograms and L is the specific
to water at 0°C. Assume the specific heat capacity
latent heat.
 230â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
The energy needed is determined in five stages:
of ice is 2100 J/(kg °C) and the specific latent heat
of fusion of ice is 335 kJ/kg. (i) Heat energy needed to change the temperature of
ice from – 20°C to 0°C is given by:
Quantity of heat energy needed, Q = sensible heat + Q1 = mc(t2 – t1)
latent heat.
â•›= 0.4 kg × 2.14 kJ/(kg °C) × (0 – –â•›20)°C
The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of
â•›= 17.12 kJ
ice from –20°C to 0°C i.e. sensible heat,
(ii) Latent heat needed to change ice at 0°C into
Q1 = mc(t2 – t1) water at 0°C is given by:
= 5 kg × 2100 J/(kg°C) × (0 – –â•›20)°C Q2 = mLf = 0.4 kg × 335 kJ/kg = 134 kJ
= (5 × 2100 × 20) J = 210 kJ (iii) Heat energy needed to change the temperature
The quantity of heat needed to melt 5 kg of ice at 0°C, of water from 0°C (i.e. melting point) to 100°C
(i.e. boiling point) is given by:
i.e. the latent heat, Q2 = mL
Q3 = mc(t2 – t1)
â•›= 5 kg × 335 kJ/kg
â•›= 0.4 kg × 4.2 kJ/(kg °C) × 100°C
â•› = 1675 kJ
â•›= 168 kJ
Total heat energy needed, Q = Q1 + Q2 (iv) Latent heat needed to change water at 100°C into
= 210 + 1675 = 1885 kJ steam at 100°C is given by:
Q4 = mLv = 0.4 kg × 2260 kJ/kg = 904 kJ
Problem 13.â•… Calculate the heat energy required
(v) Heat energy needed to change steam at 100°C
to convert completely 10 kg of water at 50°C into
into steam at 120°C is given by:
steam at 100°C, given that the specific heat capac-
ity of water is 4200 J/(kg °C) and the specific latent Q5 = mc(t1 – t2)
heat of vaporisation of water is 2260 kJ/kg. â•›= 0.4 kg × 2.01 kJ/(kg °C) × 20°C
â•›= 16.08 kJ
Quantity of heat required = sensible heat + latent heat.
Total heat energy needed,
Sensible heat, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5
Q1 = mc(t2 – t1) = 17.12 + 134 + 168 + 904 + 16.08
= 10 kg × 4200 J/(kg °C) × (100 – 50)°C = 1239.2 kJ
= 2100 kJ
Now try the following Practise Exercise
Latent heat, Q2 = mL = 10 kg × 2260 kJ/kg
= 22600 kJ Practise Exercise 4 Further problems
on the latent heats
Total heat energy required, Q = Q1 + Q2
of fusion and
â•›= (2100 + 22600) kJ vaporisation
= 24700 kJ or 24.70 MJ 1. How
 much heat is needed to melt completely
25 kg of ice at 0°C. Assume the specific
Problem 14.â•… Determine the amount of heat latent heat of fusion of ice is 335 kJ/kg.
energy needed to change 400 g of ice, initially at
–20°C, into steam at 120°C. Assume the following:
latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg, latent heat 2. Determine
 the heat energy required to change
of vaporisation of water = 2260 kJ/kg, specific 8 kg of water at 100°C to superheated steam
Part Four

heat capacity of ice = 2.14 kJ/(kg °C), specific heat at 100°C. Assume the specific latent heat of
capacity of water = 4.2 kJ(kg °C) and specific heat vaporisation of water is 2260 kJ/kg.
capacity of steam = 2.01 kJ/(kg °C).
 Heat energy and transferâ•… 231

Practical applications of conduction include:

3. Calculate
 the heat energy required to convert
10 kg of ice initially at – 30°C completely (i) A domestic saucepan or dish conducts heat from
into water at 0°C. Assume the specific heat the source to the contents. Also, since wood and
capacity of ice is 2.1 kJ/(kg °C) and the spe- plastic are poor conductors of heat they are used
cific latent heat of fusion of ice is 335 kJ/kg. for saucepan handles.
(ii) The metal of a radiator of a central heating sys-
tem conducts heat from the hot water inside to
4. Determine the heat energy needed to convert the air outside.
completely 5 kg of water at 60°C to steam
at 100°C, given that the specific heat ca- Convection
pacity of water is 4.2 kJ/(kg °C) and the Convection is the transfer of heat energy through a
specific latent heat of vaporisation of water substance by the actual movement of the substance it-
is 2260 kJ/kg. self. Convection occurs in liquids and gases, but not
in solids. When heated, a liquid or gas becomes less
dense. It then rises and is replaced by a colder liquid
or gas and the process repeats. For example, electric
kettles and central heating radiators always heat up at
6 A simple refrigerator the top first.
The boiling point of most liquids may be lowered if Examples of convection are:
the pressure is lowered. In a simple refrigerator a
(i) Natural circulation hot water heating systems
working fluid, such as ammonia or freon, has the
depend on the hot water rising by convection to
pressure acting on it reduced. The resulting lower-
the top of the house and then falling back to the
ing of the boiling point causes the liquid to vaporise.
bottom of the house as it cools, releasing the heat
In vaporising, the liquid takes in the necessary latent
energy to warm the house as it does so.
heat from its surroundings, i.e. the freezer, which
(ii) Convection currents cause air to move and there-
thus becomes cooled. The vapour is immediately re-
fore affect climate.
moved by a pump to a condenser that is outside of the
(iii) When a radiator heats the air around it, the hot
cabinet, where it is compressed and changed back into
air rises by convection and cold air moves in to
a liquid, giving out latent heat. The cycle is repeated
take its place.
when the liquid is pumped back to the freezer to be
(iv) A cooling system in a car radiator relies on con-
vaporised.
vection.
(v) Large electrical transformers dissipate waste
heat to an oil tank. The heated oil rises by con-
7 Conduction, convection vection to the top, then sinks through cooling
and radiation fins, losing heat as it does so.
(vi) In a refrigerator, the cooling unit is situated near
Heat may be transferred from a hot body to a the top. The air surrounding the cold pipes be-
cooler body by one or more of three methods, these come heavier as it contracts and sinks towards
being: (a) by conduction (b) by convection or (c) by the bottom. Warmer, less dense air is pushed
radiation. upwards and in turn is cooled. A cold convection
current is thus created.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from one Radiation
part of a body to another (or from one body to another) Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a hot
without the particles of the body moving. body to a cooler one by electromagnetic waves. Heat
Conduction is associated with solids. For example, radiation is similar in character to light waves – it
if one end of a metal bar is heated, the other end will travels at the same speed and can pass through a
Part Four

become hot by conduction. Metals and metallic alloys vacuum – except that the frequency of the waves is
are good conductors of heat, whereas air, wood, plastic, different. Waves are emitted by a hot body, are trans-
cork, glass and gases are examples of poor conductors mitted through space (even a vacuum) and are not
(i.e. they are heat insulators). detected until they fall on to another body. Radiation
 232â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
is reflected from shining, polished surfaces but ab- (i) Since convection causes hot air to rise it is im-
sorbed by dull, black surfaces. portant to insulate the roof space, which is prob-
ably the greatest source of heat loss in the home.
Practical applications of radiation include:
This can be achieved by laying fibre-glass be-
(i) heat from the sun reaching earth tween the wooden joists in the roof space.
(ii) heat felt by a flame (ii) Glass is a poor conductor of heat. However,
(iii) cooker grills large losses can occur through thin panes of glass
(iv) industrial furnaces and such losses can be reduced by using double-
(v) infra-red space heaters. glazing. Two sheets of glass, separated by air,
are used. Air is a very good insulator but the air
space must not be too large otherwise convec-
tion currents can occur which would carry heat
8 Vacuum flask across the space.
(iii) Hot water tanks should be lagged to prevent con-
A cross-section of a typical vacuum flask is shown in duction and convection of heat to the surround-
Figure 20.3 and is seen to be a double-walled bottle ing air.
with a vacuum space between them, the whole sup- (iv) Brick, concrete, plaster and wood are all poor
ported in a protective outer case. conductors of heat. A house is made from two
walls with an air gap between them. Air is a
poor conductor and trapped air minimises losses
through the wall. Heat losses through the walls
can be prevented almost completely by using
cavity wall insulation, i.e. plastic-foam.
Besides changing temperature, the effects of supply-
ing heat to a material can involve changes in dimen-
sions, as well as in colour, state and electrical resis-
tance.
Most substances expand when heated and contract
when cooled, and there are many practical applications
and design implications of thermal movement as ex-
plained in Chapter following.
Figure 3

Very little heat can be transferred by conduction be- Now try the following Practise Exercises
cause of the vacuum space and the cork stopper (cork is
a bad conductor of heat). Also, because of the vacuum Practise Exercise 10 Short-answer
space, no convection is possible. Radiation is mini- questions on
mised by silvering the two glass surfaces (radiation is heat energy
reflected off shining surfaces).
Thus a vacuum flask is an example of prevention of 1. 
Differentiate between temperature and
all three types of heat transfer and is therefore able to heat.
keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold. 2. 
Name two scales on which temperature is
measured.
3. Name any four temperature measuring
9 Use of insulation in devices.
conserving fuel
4. Define specific heat capacity and name its
Part Four

unit.
Fuel used for heating a building is becoming increas-
ingly expensive. By the careful use of insulation, heat 5. 
Differentiate between sensible and latent
can be retained in a building for longer periods and the heat.
cost of heating thus minimised.