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CHAPTER ALLEN
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23 MODERN PHYSICS

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Ordered arrangement of red (7 x 10 m) violet (4x 10 m)

(EMW) either in
electro magnetic waves
ascending of order frequencies or
3x10'm 3m 3 x 10 m 3 10m

decending order of wave lengths infrared Ultra Garnrna rays

Sneed of E.M.W. in vacuum:

Radio waves
C=3x10° m/s = và
Xrays
Micro waves Visible
(e.g. radar)
10 10 10° 10 10" 10 10 10" 10"

Frequency (Hz)

PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY

When light (EMW) interacts with matter then light behaves as quanta. This quanta is caled PHOTON, In a mono
chromatic ight each photon have same frequency vand enerqu E=hy where h = planck's constant=6.63 x10 s.
According to Planck the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
Ehc_ 12400(Å eV) hc =12400
hc h 1
Equivalent mass of photon m = i.e. mc

So equivalent mass of violet light photon is greater than the equivalent mass of red light photon.
(:: > ,)(: m, < m)
E_ hv h
Linear momentum of photon p= C

INTENSITY OF LIGHT FORCE EXERTED ON

PERFECTLY REFLECTING
E P
I= ...) SURFACE
At A
2P
Here and
C

P= Power of source,
F 2P
A=Area, Pressure= A CA c
t= Time taken
time = Nhv
E= Energyincidentin t ttime FORCE EXERTED ON
incident in
N= no. of photon PERFECTLY ABSORBING
N(hv) n(hv) (i)
Intensity l= A SURFACE
At
FP
sec.
n
N
= no. of photon per
and
and (i),
From equation (i) Pressure= A
PI
PA Ac C
P n(hv) hc
hv
A A
xPx A
=5x 10%J'm'
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are
exposed to light
metals
matel surface when
electrons from etect.
The phenomenon of the emission of called photo electric frequencu) is
(of suitable
RESULTS
theory (concept of photon) of
Can be explained only on the basis of the
quantum (threshold frequency). Emission
V,
the incident light has frequency v2 called threshold
wae
Electrons are emitted if corresponding to , is
wave length
electrons is independent of intensity The
length y
V, is different for different metals. the incident
light of given frequency.
intensity of
depends on the
Number of electrons emitted per second

Cut Off Potential

Stopping Potential Or
Einsteins Photo Electric Equation respect to
of anode with
work function Minimum negative potential
Photon energy = KE of electron + becomes zero.
cathode at which current
hv =KE t
= Work function = A certain minimum
amount of eVt off = (KE),nax
from the
energy is required by an electron to escape
metal surface = h vÍ

GRAPHS FOR
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Photocurrent

Metal 1 Metal 2
1,>1,>1,
Stopping
potential Slope = h/e

Stopping potential,
V= constant - / e v , Frequency

-Retardingpotential Collector plate potential

Photo
current
Photoelectric
Current
V = c o n s t a n t

V Saturation current
-Vo -Vo Collector+
-Retarding potential plate potential

Intensity

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Graphbetween (Kma) and
(K)=hy -
frequency WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
Comparing with equation, Matter exhibit wave properties when in motion
y= mX c
tane = h including interference and diffraction with a de
slope = m = (same for all metals) h
Broglie wave length given by . = (wave length
Km M e tAa l of a moving praticle).
MetBal

De Broglie wavelength associated with

moving particles
If a particle of mass m moving with velocity v.
Kinetic energy of the particle
1
Graph between stopping potential (V,)
E-mv' 2rn
and frequency (v)
M e t
A a l
momentum of particle p = mv = V2rnE the
Vof wave length associated with the particles is
Metal

h h h
mv V2mE
e
Frequency De Broglie wavelength associated with the
charged particles :
For an Electron

: eV, = hy - , ;V, -)-) 12.27x 10-0

-m= 12.27 A
h
slope = m = tan =

(same for all metals)

For Proton
Quantum efficiency
0.286x10-0 0.286
Quantum efficiency = m

No.of electron emitted per second

Total no. of photon incident per second n For Deuteron

0.202
nph
X

I quanturn efficiency is x% then n, 100" For a Particles

m)PA
Here n,, = (5 x10" J' 0.101 Å
Photoelectric current
ChargeQ
Time
=n,e = 1.6x10n.
t

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ATOMIC MODELS
(a) atomic model Bohr adopted
Thomson model : (Plum pudding model) (c) Bohr
atom & added some
Rutherford model of the
Most of the mass and all the positive charge of arbitrary conditions. These conditions are
an atom is unifomly distributed over the fullsize
known as his postulates
of atom (10"m).
stable orbit does not radiate
The electron in a
Electrons are studded in this uniform distribution.
energy.
Failed to explain the large angle scattering anqular
A stable orbit is that in which the
a- particle scattered by thin foils of matter. momentum of the electron about nucleus
is an
(b) Rutherford model : (Nuclear Model) h h
integral (n) multiple of 2
i.e. mv =n
The most of the mass and all the positive charge
n=1, 2, 3,..(n 0).
is concentrated within a size of 10m inside the
atom. This concentration is called the atomic The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if
nucleus. the electron jumps from a lower to a higher orbit
or falls from a higher to a lower ortbit.
The electron revolves around the nucleus under
electric interaction between them in circular Theenergy emitted or absorbed is a light photon
orbits. of frequencyv and of energy. E = hv
An accelerating charge radiates the nucleus
spiralling inward and finaly fall into the nucleus,
which does not happen in an atom. This could
not be explained by this model.
Physics
H
SPECTRAL SERIES
FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
Lyman Series (Landing orbit n = 1) ..
(Z= atomic no.= 1)
;n, >1
angular momentum in the n" orbit Ultraviolet region v
L, =
h orbit n = 2)
2r
Balmer Series: (Landing
1 1 >2
1
radius offn circular orbit
Visible region ù = R
n'.
= (0.529 A)n>rc orbit n = 3)
electron in the nh orbit Paschan Series : (Landing
E Energy of the
-13.6 eV 1 In the near infrared region
1
n² n :n,>3
electron in an
Note : Total energy of the orbit n = 4)
atom is negative, indicating
that it is bound. Brackett Series : (Landing
13.6 eV In themid infrared region
Binding nergy (BE), = -E, = n 1 12:n,>4
V=R
emitted when an electron
E., - E = Energy orbit (n, > n,). orbit n = 5)
jumps from n," orbit ton," Pfund Series : (Landing
1 1
L>5
AE = (13.6 eV) In far infraredregion V= R
ine
of spectral line n, + 1 is the a
AE = hv; v= frequency In all these series n, =
Bline
emitted = n, + 2 is the
unit length (1m)) =n, +3is the y line...etc.
1
= wave no. (no. of waves in
2 where n, =Landing orbit
Total emission spectral lines
n(n- 1)
state
for hydrogen From n, =n to n, = l 2
Where R = Rydberg's constant, (n-m)(n-m+1))
= 1.097 x10'm' From n, =nto n, =m state = 2
atom/species of atomic
For hydrogen like
number 2: Excitation potential of atom
from
Bohr radiusR-(0.529 A): Excitation potential for quantum jump
E, -Enl
n, ’n, electron charge
22
E, =(-13.6) n e lonization energy of hydrogen atom
constant for element of an electron
=RZ; Rydberg's The energy required to remove
R, from an atom. The energy
required to ionize
atomic no. Z. 13.6 eV.
motion of the
nucleus is also hydrogen atom is = 0-(-13.6) =
Note : lonization Potential
Considered, then m is replaced by u. Where
electron - nucleus free
= reduced mass of Potential difference through which a
System = MM/(m+M) electron is moved to gain ionization energy
- E,
In this case E, = (-13.6 eV) n m, electronic charge

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X -RAYS
single electron species
X-rays are produced by bombarding high speed 1. For
electrons on a target of high atomic weight and BOHR
MODEL 1
high melting point. 2. AE = 13.62 n; n
Short wavelength (0.01 Åto 100 ¢) 1
RcZ'
electromagnetic radiation. 3. v = n n,
Are not affected bä electric and magnetic field.
They cause photoelectric emission. 1 =Rz:/1
4. n n,
eV = hv,mK
e = electron charge; electron species
V= accelerating potential 1. For many
CORRECTION 1
MOSELEY'S (2-b
V = maximum frequency of X- radiation 2. AE= 13.6
Characteristic

3. v = RelZ-9| n1 1
n;
Continuou
Spectrum
35000 volt
4.
1 -R(Z-b)P|1
n n

Am
Diffraction of X-ray
Intensity of X-rays depends on number of
electrons hitting the target . Diffraction of X-ray take place according to Bragg's
law 2d sin = n
Cut off wavelength or minimum wavelength,
where V (in volts) is the p.d. applied to the
tube mn 12400 A
Continuous spectrum due to retardation of
electrons . o---dsino
Characteristic X-rays
hc hc
For K, = For K, 2 = d = spacing of crystal plane or lattice constant or
E-E E -EM distance between adjacent atomic plane
Moseley's law for characteristic spectrum
0 = Bragg's angle or glancing angle
Frequency of characteristic line Vv= a(2-b)
Where a, b are constant, forK, line b = 1 = Diffracting angle n = 1, 2, 3 .....
Z = atomic number of target For Maximum Wavelength
v= frequency of characteristic spectrum
b= screening constant sin = 1, n= 1 = 2d
(for K- series b=1, L series b=7.4), so if . > 2d diffraction is not possible i.e, solution of
a= proportionality constant Bragg's equation is not possible.

Binding energy = -Total Mechanical Energyl

KEY
Velocity of electron in n" orbit for hydrogen atom
\POINTS 137 n ;C= speed of light.
Series limit means minimum wave length of
that series.

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PhysicsHandBook

Nuclear Fusion :
NUCLEAR COLLISIONS
of fusing two or more
reaction by It is the phenomenon
1MJo can represent a nuclear collision or(a.b) Y nucleus.
larger
Abefollowing notation, which means
X lighter nuclei to form asingle
a + X Y+b A+B C+ Q(Energy)
(bombarding aparticle) (at rest )
stable then reactants
The product (C) is more
Wecan apply : (A and B) and m, < (m, + m)
Conservation of momentum (ii) Conservation
() m m]amu
of charge (ii) Conservation of mass-energy and mass defect Am = ((m, +
MeV
For any nuclear
reaction: Energy released is E = Am 931
+ X ’ Y+b binding energy
The total binding energy and
K, K, K, K, more than of A and B.
per nucleon Cboth are
Conservation
By masS energy AE E - (E, + E)
() K, + K, + (m, + m)c
= K, + K, + (m, + m)c
RADIOACTIVITY
nuclear reaction or
(ii) Energy released in any are
colision is called Q value of the reaction. Radioactive Decays : Generally, there
(ii) Q = (K, + K) - (K,+K) three types of radioactive decays
(ii) y decay
- EK,-£K=(Em, - m)e' (i) a decay (ii) Band B decay
and products particle, the nucleus
(iv) If Q is positive, energy is released
to reactants.
a decay: By emitting a
move towards
are more stable in comparison decreases it's mass number and
is absorbed and shows a
(v) If Q is negative, energy to stability. Nucleus having A>210
are less stable in comparison
products
decay.
reactants. either a neutron is
Q =(B.E.)modt -2(B.E.),esctants B decay : In beta decay,
is converted
converted into proton or proton
Nuclear Fission into neutron.
Strassmann. By attack decay takes place,
In 1938 by Hahn and Y decay:When an a or B
a heavy nucleus
of a slow neutron splitting of lighter higher energy
nuclei. In the daughter nucleus is usually in
(A > 230) into two or more ground state by
disappears which is state, such a nucleus comes to
this process certain mass
obtained in the form of energy
(enormous emitting a photon or photons.
amount) Order of energyof y photon is MeV
A +n’ excited
nucleus ’B+ C+ Q

Q-value of a nuclear reaction

Equivalence of mass and energy
For a+ X Y +bor X la, b)Y;
E= mc
Q= (M, + M,- M, - M)c
Note:
Radius of the nucleus
MeV/c
lu = 1.66 x 10" ka = 931.5
m
R = R,A where R, = 1.2 x 10
Binding energy ofX^
m,]c
BE Amc = (Zm, + (A-Z)m, -

= |Zm,, + (A-Z)m, -m,c*

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CHAPTER Pre-Medical

24
SEMICONDUCTOR & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Properties Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Resistivity 10- 10* Qm (Low) 10- 10 Qm (Moderate) 10" - 10" Qm (High)
Conductivity 10° - 10 mho/m (High) 10- 10° mho/m (Moderate) 10"- 10" mho/m (Low)
Temp. Coefficient Positive
Negative Negative
ofresistarnce (a)

Qurrent Due to free electrons Due to

Overlapping
region
electrons and holes No current
Energyband
Electron
energy
Conduction Band Electron
energy
diagram ener Conduction Band
Electron Conduction Band

No gap Forbidden Gap E, s 3eV E, > 3eV

Forbidden Gap
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Conductor Semi conductor Insulator

Forbidden energy 0eV <3eV >3 eV

gap(AEg)
Example Pt, Al, Cu, Ag Ge, Si, GaAs Wood. plastic.
Diamond, Mica

Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band at temp. T: n=ATe 2T
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS :

SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic Extrinsic semiconductor

semiconductor (doped semicondutor)
(pure form of Ge, Si)
n=n,=n, N-type P-type
pentavalent impurity trivalent impurity
(P. As, Sb etc.) (B, In, A)
donor impurity (N,) acceptor impurity (N)
n, >>n, n, >> ,

MASS-ACTION LAW : n-n, xn,

O For N-type sermiconductor n, N, O For P-type semiconductor n, N,
Conduction in Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor P- type N- type
n, = n, n, >> n, n, >>n,
I=neA (v, +v) l=n,eAva, |=n,eAvA,
1
G=÷=en u. + ul (Conductivity) Þ= G=÷ en, H

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Intrinsic Semiconductor N-type (Pentavalent impurity)
CB CB
CB 3 acceptor
donor -* impurity
.. impurity level
level VB&
VB VB

hole
free
electron negative
positive acceptor
donor ion ion

Cument due to electron and hole Mainly due to holes

Mainly due to electrons
n, >>n,(N, n)
n =n= n n,<<n(N, n)
|=\,+\,
Entirely neutral Entirely neutral
Entirely neutral
Quantitv of electrons and Majority Holes
Majority Electrons Minority - Electrons
holes are equal Minority Holes

COMPARISON BETWEEN
P-N JUNCTION
FORWARD BIAS AND REVERSE BIAS
Reverse Bias
(Atequilibrium condition) Forward Bias
P N

1 Potential Barrier reduces 1 Potential Barrier increases.

Width of depletion layer 2 Width of depletion layer
hole free electron decreases increases.
3 P-N jn. provide very small 3 P-N /n. provide high
resistance resistance
distance Forward current flows in 4 Very small current flows.
the circuit
5 Order of forward current 5 Order of current is micro
is milli ampere. ampere for Ge or Nano
Direction of diffusion current : P to N ampere for Si.
side and drift current: N to P side
6 Current flows mainly due6 Current flows mainly due
to majority carriers. to minoritycarriers.
If there is no biasing then diffusion 7 Forward characteristic Reverse characteristic
Curves. curve
current = drift current. So total current is Vivolt)
Reverse
(mA) saturation
zero
break down curent
knee voltage
In junction N side is at high potential 0
voltage
+

relative to the P side. This potential V(vol)

8 Forward Resistance
difference tends to prevent the movement AV,
Reverse Resistance
R, 1002 AV
R 10°
of electron from the N region into the P 9 Al,
Order of knee or cut in 9 Breakown voltage
region. This potential difference called a voltage
Ge’ 0.3 V Ge ’ 25 V
barrier potential. Si ’0.7V
Si ’ 35V
Special point :Generally R = 10 : lfor Si
R,
R,
10':1 for Ge R

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BREAKDOWN ARE OF TWO TYPES

Zener Break down Avalanche Break down
layers are broken
Where covalent bonds of depletion layer, itself break, Here covalent bonds of depletion
aquire high kinetic
due to high
electric field of low reverse bias voltage. by collision of "Minorities" which
very-very high
phenomena take place in energy from high electric field of
This reverse bias voltage.
) P-N junction having "High doping" This phenomena takes place in
6) P- N junction having thin depletion layer Here
() P-N junction having "Low doping"
Here
p-N junction does not damage permanently "In (i) P- N junction having thick depletion layer
due to
D.Cvoltage stabilizer zener phenomena is used'". P- Njunction darmages permanentaly
abruptly increment of minorities during
repeatative collisions.

APPLICATION OF DIODE
Zener diode It is highly doped p-n junction diode used as a voltage regulator.
Photo diode : A p-n junction diode use to detect light signals operated in reverse bias.
LED Apn junction device that emits optical radiation under forward bias conditions
Solar cell Generates emf of its own due to the effect of sun radiations.

V
ideal diode

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER v=V,sinaot

D,

Peak value = V
CENTRE - TAP FULL
WAVE RECTIFIER R
D.

=V.
Peak
value
> D,
FULL WAVE BRIDGE W
REACTIFIER
D

RIPPLE FACTOR: r= RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY: IR

P (R, +R,)
O For HWR r= 1.21 For HWR: n% = 40.6 & FWR n% = 81.2
O For FWR 1+ Re
r= 0,48
1: R
R R,

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Names Symbol
SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES
Boolean Truth table
Expression Electrical analogue
OR Y =A+B
B
AB
00
1
10

A
AND Y =A. B
A BY
B 00
1
10
1

NOT or Y=
|Inverter LAY
1
1

NOR A
Y=A+B A BY
B
(OR +NOT) 01 B
10
00
10

NAND A
Y = A.B A BY LA
AND+NOT) B
ooHH 01
1|1
B
01
1 1 0

XOR A
Y=A Bor ABY DE MORGAN'S THEOREM
Edusive Y= A.B +AB 1 A+B= A-B, A"B =A+B
OR
OR AND NOT
A+0= A A. 0 = 0
A +A =1
|XNOR Y=A OB or A BY
A+l= 1 A. l = A A A=0
(Exdusive A+A =A A.A =A
A=A
NOR) Y =A.B + A.B
0
or Y= AB