Chapter 2

Mathematics of
Cryptography
Part I: Modular Arithmetic, Congruence,
and Matrices

1
 Chapter 2
Objectives
 To review integer arithmetic, concentrating on divisibility
and finding the greatest common divisor using the Euclidean
algorithm
 To understand how the extended Euclidean algorithm can be
used to solve linear Diophantine equations, to solve linear
congruent equations, and to find the multiplicative inverses
 To emphasize the importance of modular arithmetic and
the modulo operator, because they are extensively used in
cryptography
 To emphasize and review matrices and operations on residue
matrices that are extensively used in cryptography
 To solve a set of congruent equations using residue matrices
2
2-1 INTEGER ARITHMETIC

In integer arithmetic, we use a set and a few

operations. You are familiar with this set and the
corresponding operations, but they are reviewed here
to create a background for modular arithmetic.

Topics discussed in this section:

2.1.1 Set of Integers
2.1.2 Binary Operations
2.1.3 Integer Division
2.1.4 Divisibility
2.1.5 Linear Diophantine Equations
3
 2.1.1 Set of Integers

The set of integers, denoted by Z, contains all integral

numbers (with no fraction) from negative infinity to
positive infinity (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 The set of integers

4
 2.1.2 Binary Operations
In cryptography, we are interested in three binary
operations applied to the set of integers. A binary
operation takes two inputs and creates one output.

Figure 2.2 Three binary operations for the set of integers

5
 2.1.2 Continued
Example 2.1

The following shows the results of the three binary operations

on two integers. Because each input can be either positive or
negative, we can have four cases for each operation.

6
 2.1.3 Integer Division

In integer arithmetic, if we divide a by n, we can get q

and r . The relationship between these four integers can
be shown as

a=q×n+r

7
 2.1.3 Continued
Example 2.2
Assume that a = 255 and n = 11. We can find q = 23 and R = 2
using the division algorithm.

Figure 2.3 Example 2.2, finding the quotient and the remainder

8
2.1.3 Continued
Figure 2.4 Division algorithm for integers

2.# 9
 2.1.3 Continued
Example 2.3
When we use a computer or a calculator, r and q are negative
when a is negative. How can we apply the restriction that r
needs to be positive? The solution is simple, we decrement the
value of q by 1 and we add the value of n to r to make it
positive.

2.# 10
2.1.3 Continued
Figure 2.5 Graph of division algorithm

11
 2.1.4 Divisbility

If a is not zero and we let r = 0 in the division relation,

we get

a=q×n

If the remainder is zero, n | a

If the remainder is not zero, n ┼ a

12
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.4

a. The integer 4 divides the integer 32 because 32 = 8 × 4. We

show this as

b. The number 8 does not divide the number 42 because

42 = 5 × 8 + 2. There is a remainder, the number 2, in the
equation. We show this as

2.# 13
 2.1.4 Continued
Properties

Property 1: if a|1, then a = ±1.

Property 2: if a|b and b|a, then a = ±b.

Property 3: if a|b and b|c, then a|c.

Property 4: if a|b and a|c, then

a|(m × b + n × c), where m
and n are arbitrary integers

2.# 14
2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.5

2.# 15
2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.6

2.# 16
 2.1.4 Continued

Note

Fact 1: The integer 1 has only one

divisor, itself.

Fact 2: Any positive integer has at least

two divisors, 1 and itself (but it
can have more).

2.# 17
2.1.4 Continued
Figure 2.6 Common divisors of two integers

18
 2.1.4 Continued
Note Greatest Common Divisor

The greatest common divisor of two positive integers

is the largest integer that can divide both integers.

 The greatest common divisor of a and b is the largest integer that

divides both a and b
 We can use the notation gcd(a,b) to mean the greatest common
divisor of a and b
 We also define gcd(0,0) = 0
 Positive integer c is said to be the gcd of a and b if:
◦ c is a divisor of a and b
◦ Any divisor of a and b is a divisor of c
 An equivalent definition is:
gcd(a,b) = max[k, such that k | a and k | b]

19
 Note Euclidean Algorithm

Fact 1: gcd (a, 0) = a

Fact 2: gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r), where r is
the remainder of dividing a by b
20
 One of the basic techniques of number theory
 Procedure for determining the greatest common divisor
of two positive integers
 Two integers are relatively prime if their only common
positive integer factor is 1
Euclidean Algorithm

21
 2.1.4 Continued
Figure 2.7 Euclidean Algorithm

Note

When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b

are relatively prime.
22
 2.1.4 Continued

Note

When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b

are relatively prime.

23
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.7
Find the greatest common divisor of 2740 and 1760.
Solution
We have gcd (2740, 1760) = 20.

24
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.8
Find the greatest common divisor of 25 and 60.

Solution
We have gcd (25, 60) = 5.

25
 2.1.4 Continued
Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other two
integers, s and t, such that

The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate the gcd (a, b)

and at the same time calculate the value of s and t.

26
2.1.4 Continued
Figure 2.8.a Extended Euclidean algorithm, part a

2.# 27
2.1.4 Continued
Figure 2.8.b Extended Euclidean algorithm, part b

28
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.9

Given a = 161 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.

Solution
We get gcd (161, 28) = 7, s = −1 and t = 6.

29
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.10
Given a = 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.

Solution
We get gcd (17, 0) = 17, s = 1, and t = 0.

30
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.11

Given a = 0 and b = 45, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s

and t.

Solution
We get gcd (0, 45) = 45, s = 0, and t = 1.

31
 2.1.4 Continued
Linear Diophantine Equation

Note

A linear Diophantine equation of two

variables is ax + by = c.

32
 2.1.4 Continued
Linear Diophantine Equation

Note

Particular solution:
x0 = (c/d)s and y0 = (c/d)t

Note

General solutions:
x = x0 + k (b/d) and y = y0 − k(a/d)
where k is an integer
2.# 33
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.12

Find the particular and general solutions to the equation

21x + 14y = 35.

Solution

2.# 34
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.13

For example, imagine we want to cash a $100 check and get

some $20 and some $5 bills. We have many choices, which we
can find by solving the corresponding Diophantine equation
20x + 5y = 100. Since d = gcd (20, 5) = 5 and 5 | 100, the
equation has an infinite number of solutions, but only a few of
them are acceptable in this case The general solutions
with x and y nonnegative are

(0, 20), (1, 16), (2, 12), (3, 8), (4, 4), (5, 0).

2.# 35
2-2 MODULAR ARITHMETIC

The division relationship (a = q × n + r) discussed in

the previous section has two inputs (a and n) and two
outputs (q and r). In modular arithmetic, we are
interested in only one of the outputs, the remainder r.

Topics discussed in this section:

2.2.1 Modular Operator
2.2.2 Set of Residues
2.2.3 Congruence
2.2.4 Operations in Zn
2.2.5 Addition and Multiplication Tables
2.2.6 Different Sets
2.# 36
 2.2.1 Modulo Operator

The modulo operator is shown as mod. The second input

(n) is called the modulus. The output r is called the
residue.
Figure 2.9 Division algorithm and modulo operator

37
 2.1.4 Continued
Example 2.14
Find the result of the following operations:
a. 27 mod 5 b. 36 mod 12
c. −18 mod 14 d. −7 mod 10

Solution
a. Dividing 27 by 5 results in r = 2
b. Dividing 36 by 12 results in r = 0.
c. Dividing −18 by 14 results in r = −4. After adding the
modulus r = 10
d. Dividing −7 by 10 results in r = −7. After adding the
modulus to −7, r = 3.

38
 2.2.2 Set of Residues

The modulo operation creates a set, which in modular

arithmetic is referred to as the set of least residues
modulo n, or Zn.

Figure 2.10 Some Zn sets

39
 2.2.3 Congruence

To show that two integers are congruent, we use the

congruence operator ( ≡ ). For example, we write:

40
2.2.3 Continued
Figure 2.11 Concept of congruence

41
 2.2.3 Continued
Residue Classes
A residue class [a] or [a]n is the set of integers congruent
modulo n.

42
2.2.3 Continued
Figure 2.12 Comparison of Z and Zn using graphs

2.# 43
 2.2.3 Continued
Example 2.15

We use modular arithmetic in our daily life; for example, we

use a clock to measure time. Our clock system uses modulo 12
arithmetic. However, instead of a 0 we use the number 12.

2.# 44
 2.2.4 Operation in Zn

The three binary operations that we discussed for the set

Z can also be defined for the set Zn. The result may need
to be mapped to Zn using the mod operator.
Figure 2.13 Binary operations in Zn

2.# 45
 2.2.4 Continued
Example 2.16
Perform the following operations (the inputs come from Zn):
a. Add 7 to 14 in Z15.
b. Subtract 11 from 7 in Z13.
c. Multiply 11 by 7 in Z20.

Solution

2.# 46
 2.2.4 Continued
Example 2.17
Perform the following operations (the inputs come from
either Z or Zn):
a. Add 17 to 27 in Z14.
b. Subtract 43 from 12 in Z13.
c. Multiply 123 by −10 in Z19.

Solution

2.# 47
2.2.4 Continued
Properties

48
2.2.4 Continued
Figure 2.14 Properties of mode operator

49
 2.2.4 Continued
Example 2.18

The following shows the application of the above properties:

1. (1,723,345 + 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 + 9) mod 11 = 6

2. (1,723,345 − 2,124,945) mod 16 = (8 − 9) mod 11 = 10

3. (1,723,345 × 2,124,945) mod 16 = (8 × 9) mod 11 = 6

50
 2.2.4 Continued
Example 2.19

In arithmetic, we often need to find the remainder of powers

of 10 when divided by an integer.

51
 2.2.4 Continued
Example 2.20

We have been told in arithmetic that the remainder of an

integer divided by 3 is the same as the remainder of the sum
of its decimal digits. We write an integer as the sum of its
digits multiplied by the powers of 10.

52
 2.2.5 Inverses

When we are working in modular arithmetic, we often need

to find the inverse of a number relative to an operation. We
are normally looking for an additive inverse (relative to an
addition operation) or a multiplicative inverse (relative to a
multiplication operation).

53
 2.2.5 Continue
Additive Inverse

In Zn, two numbers a and b are additive inverses of each

other if

Note

In modular arithmetic, each integer has

an additive inverse. The sum of an
integer and its additive inverse is
congruent to 0 modulo n.
2.# 54
 2.2.5 Continued
Example 2.21

Find all additive inverse pairs in Z10.

Solution
The six pairs of additive inverses are (0, 0), (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7),
(4, 6), and (5, 5).

2.# 55
 2.2.5 Continue
Multiplicative Inverse
In Zn, two numbers a and b are the multiplicative inverse of
each other if

Note

In modular arithmetic, an integer may or

may not have a multiplicative inverse.
When it does, the product of the integer
and its multiplicative inverse is
congruent to 1 modulo n.

2.# 56
 2.2.5 Continued

Example 2.22
Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10.
Solution
There is no multiplicative inverse because gcd (10, 8) = 2 ≠ 1.
In other words, we cannot find any number between 0 and 9
such that when multiplied by 8, the result is congruent to 1.
Example 2.23
Find all multiplicative inverses in Z10.

Solution
There are only three pairs: (1, 1), (3, 7) and (9, 9). The
numbers 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 do not have a multiplicative
inverse.
57
 2.2.5 Continued
Example 2.24

Find all multiplicative inverse pairs in Z11.

Solution
We have seven pairs: (1, 1), (2, 6), (3, 4), (5, 9), (7, 8), and (10,
10).

58
 2.2.5 Continued

Note

The extended Euclidean algorithm finds

the multiplicative inverses of b in Zn
when n and b are given and
gcd (n, b) = 1.
The multiplicative inverse of b is the
value of t after being mapped to Zn.

59
 2.2.5 Continued
Figure 2.15 Using extended Euclidean algorithm to
find multiplicative inverse

2.# 60
 2.2.5 Continued
Example 2.25
Find the multiplicative inverse of 11 in Z26.
Solution

The gcd (26, 11) is 1; the inverse of 11 is −7 or 19.

2.# 61
 2.2.5 Continued
Example 2.26
Find the multiplicative inverse of 23 in Z100.
Solution

The gcd (100, 23) is 1; the inverse of 23 is −13 or 87.

2.# 62
 2.2.5 Continued
Example 2.27
Find the inverse of 12 in Z26.
Solution

The gcd (26, 12) is 2; the inverse does not exist.

2.# 63
2.2.6 Addition and Multiplication Tables
Figure 2.16 Addition and multiplication table for Z10

2.# 64
 2.2.7 Different Sets
Figure 2.17 Some Zn and Zn* sets

Note

We need to use Zn when additive

inverses are needed; we need to use Zn*
when multiplicative inverses are needed.
2.# 65
 2.2.8 Two More Sets

Cryptography often uses two more sets: Zp and Zp*.

The modulus in these two sets is a prime number.

66
2-3 MATRICES

In cryptography we need to handle matrices. Although

this topic belongs to a special branch of algebra called
linear algebra, the following brief review of matrices is
necessary preparation for the study of cryptography.

Topics discussed in this section:

2.3.1 Definitions
2.3.2 Operations and Relations
2.3.3 Determinants
2.3.4 Residue Matrices

67
2.3.1 Definition

Figure 2.18 A matrix of size l ´ m

68
2.3.1 Continued

Figure 2.19 Examples of matrices

69
 2.3.2 Operations and Relations
Example 2.28

Figure 2.20 shows an example of addition and

subtraction.

Figure 2.20 Addition and subtraction of matrices

70
 2.3.2 Continued
Example 2. 29

Figure 2.21 shows the product of a row matrix (1 × 3)

by a column matrix (3 × 1). The result is a matrix of
size 1 × 1.

Figure 2.21 Multiplication of a row matrix by a column matrix

71
 2.3.2 Continued
Example 2. 30

Figure 2.22 shows the product of a 2 × 3 matrix by a

3 × 4 matrix. The result is a 2 × 4 matrix.

Figure 2.22 Multiplication of a 2 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 4 matrix

72
 2.3.2 Continued
Example 2. 31

Figure 2.23 shows an example of scalar multiplication.

Figure 2.23 Scalar multiplication

2.# 73
 2.3.3 Determinant

The determinant of a square matrix A of size m × m

denoted as det (A) is a scalar calculated recursively as
shown below:

Note

The determinant is defined only for a

square matrix.
74
 2.3.3 Continued
Example 2. 32

Figure 2.24 shows how we can calculate the

determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix based on the
determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix.

Figure 2.24 Calculating the determinant of a 2 ´ 2 matrix

75
 2.3.3 Continued
Example 2. 33

Figure 2.25 shows the calculation of the determinant

of a 3 × 3 matrix.

Figure 2.25 Calculating the determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix

76
 2.3.4 Inverses

Note

Multiplicative inverses are only defined

for square matrices.

2.# 77
 2.3.5 Residue Matrices

Cryptography uses residue matrices: matrices where

all elements are in Zn. A residue matrix has a
multiplicative inverse if gcd (det(A), n) = 1.

Example 2. 34

Figure 2.26 A residue matrix and its multiplicative inverse

2.# 78
2 LINEAR CONGRUENCE

Cryptography often involves solving an equation or a

set of equations of one or more variables with
coefficient in Zn. This section shows how to solve
equations when the power of each variable is 1 (linear
equation).

Topics discussed in this section:

2.4.1 Single-Variable Linear Equations
2.4.2 Set of Linear Equations

79
 2.4.1 Single-Variable Linear Equations

Equations of the form ax ≡ b (mod n ) might have no

solution or a limited number of solutions.

80
Approach: The idea is based on the following observations:
 A solution exists if and only if b is divisible by gcd (a, n) i.e b mod gcd (a, n)=0.
 The number of solutions for x (mod n) is gcd(a, n).

Proof:
1.Given, ax=b (mod n)
⇒ there exist a number y such that ax = b + ny
ax - ny = b — (1)
This is a linear Diophantine equation, and is solvable if and only if gcd(a, n) divides b.
2.Now, using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, u and v can be found
such that au + nv = gcd (a, n) = d(say)
⇒ au + nv = d
⇒ au = d (mod n) — (2)
1.Assuming b mod d=0, so that solution of Equation 1 exists,
Multiplying both sides of Equation 2 by B/d, (possible since B/d is an integer),
au*(b/d)=d*(b/d) (mod n) or a*(u*bB/d)=b (mod n).
Thus, u*b/d is a solution of Equation 1.
2.Let x0 be u*b/d.
Thus, the d solutions of Equation 1 will be x0, x0+(n/d), x0+2*(n/d), …, x0+(d-1)*(n/d)

81
 2.4.1 Continued

Example 2.35
Solve the equation 10 x ≡ 2(mod 15).
Solution
First we find the gcd (10 and 15) = 5. Since 5 does not divide 2,
we have no solution.
Example 2.36
Solve the equation 14 x ≡ 12 (mod 18).

Solution

82
 2.4.1 Continued
Example 2.37

Solve the equation 3x + 4 ≡ 6 (mod 13).

Solution
First we change the equation to the form ax ≡ b (mod n). We
add −4 (the additive inverse of 4) to both sides, which give
3x ≡ 2 (mod 13). Because gcd (3, 13) = 1, the equation has only
one solution, which is x0 = (2 × 3−1) mod 13 = 18 mod 13 = 5.
We can see that the answer satisfies the original equation:
3 × 5 + 4 ≡ 6 (mod 13).

83
 2.4.2 Single-Variable Linear Equations

We can also solve a set of linear equations with the

same modulus if the matrix formed from the
coefficients of the variables is invertible.
Figure 2.27 Set of linear equations

84
 2.4.2 Continued

Example 2.38
Solve the set of following three equations:

Solution
The result is x ≡ 15 (mod 16), y ≡ 4 (mod 16), and z ≡ 14 (mod
16). We can check the answer by inserting these values into
the equations.

85
𝟑𝟑 𝟓𝟓 𝟕𝟕 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 Mod 16
𝟐𝟐 𝟕𝟕 𝟑𝟑 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏

𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟗 𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎 Mod 16
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟗𝟗

15 14 11 3
9 5 0 4
5
Mod 16 = 15 16 14
1 11 9

86
Programming Exercise
Extended Euclidean Algorithm:
Extended Euclidean algorithm also finds integer coefficients x and y
such that:
ax + by = gcd(a, b)
Examples:

Input: a = 30, b = 20
Output: gcd = 10
x = 1, y = -1
(Note that 30*1 + 20*(-1) = 10)

Input: a = 35, b = 15
Output: gcd = 5
x = 1, y = -2
(Note that 35*1 + 15*(-2) = 5)
The extended Euclidean algorithm updates results of gcd(a, b) using the results
calculated by recursive call gcd(b%a, a). Let values of x and y calculated by the
recursive call be x1 and y1. x and y are updated using the below expressions.
x = y1 - ⌊b/a⌋ * x1 y = x1

87
// Java program to demonstrate working of extended
// Euclidean Algorithm
import java.util.*;
import java.lang.*;

class GFG
{
// extended Euclidean Algorithm
public static int gcdExtended(int a, int b, int x, int y)
{
// Base Case
if (a == 0)
{
x = 0;
y = 1;
return b;
}
int x1=1, y1=1; // To store results of recursive call
int gcd = gcdExtended(b%a, a, x1, y1);

// Update x and y using results of recursive

// call
x = y1 - (b/a) * x1;
y = x1;
return gcd;
}

// Driver Program
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x=1, y=1;
int a = 35, b = 15;
int g = gcdExtended(a, b, x, y);
System.out.print("gcd(" + a + " , " + b+ ") = " + g);
}
} 88
Programming Exercise
Solve Linear Congruences ax ≡ b (mod n) for values of x in range [0, N-1]

Given three positive integers a, b, and n, which represent a linear

congruence of the form ax=b (mod n), the task is to print all possible
values of x (mod n) i.e in the range [0, n-1] that satisfies this equation. If
there is no solution, print -1.
Examples:
Input: A=15, B=9, N=18
Output: 15, 3, 9

Explanation: The values of X satisfying the condition AX=B (mod N) are {3, 9, 15}.
(15*15)%18 = 225%18 = 9
(3*15)%18 = 45%18 = 9
(9*15)%18 = 135%18 = 9
Input: A=9, B=21, N=30
Output: 9, 19, 20

89
# Python3 program for the above approach

# Function to stores the values of x and y

# and find the value of gcd(a, b)
def ExtendedEuclidAlgo(a, b):

# Base Case
if a == 0 :
return b, 0, 1

gcd, x1, y1 = ExtendedEuclidAlgo(b % a, a)

# Update x and y using results of recursive

# call
x = y1 - (b // a) * x1
y = x1

return gcd, x, y

90
# Function to give the distinct
# solutions of ax = b (mod n)
def linearCongruence(A, B, N):

A =A %N
B =B %N
u =0
v =0

# Function Call to find

# the value of d and u
d, u, v = ExtendedEuclidAlgo(A, N)

# No solution exists
if (B % d != 0):
print(-1)
return

# Else, initialize the value of x0

x0 = (u * (B // d)) % N
if (x0 < 0):
x0 += N

# Pr all the answers

for i in range(d):
print((x0 + i * (N // d)) % N, end = " ")

# Driver Code

# Input
A = 15
B =9
N = 18

# Function Call
linearCongruence(A, B, N)

91