CNND AI 2 ANS

Q 1 explain function of transport layer

ANS ::

ChatGPT said:
The Transport Layer (Layer 4 of the OSI model) is responsible for ensuring reliable
end-to-end communication between devices on a network. It provides services like
error detection, flow control, and data segmentation.

Key Functions of the Transport Layer:

Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides large data into smaller segments and
reassembles them at the destination.

Flow Control: Regulates the data flow between sender and receiver to prevent
congestion.

Error Detection and Correction: Ensures that the data is accurately transmitted by
detecting and correcting errors.

Reliable Data Transfer: Uses protocols like TCP to guarantee that data is delivered
correctly and in order.

Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to use the same network connection by

assigning unique port numbers.

Diagram

+--------------------+
| Application |
+--------------------+
|
+--------------------+
| Transport Layer |
| (TCP/UDP) |
+--------------------+
|
+--------------------+
| Network Layer |
+--------------------+
|
+--------------------+
| Data Link Layer |
+--------------------+
|
+--------------------+
| Physical Layer |
+--------------------+
The Transport Layer sits between the Application Layer (top) and the Network Layer
(bottom), handling the transport of data.

It uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable communication or UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) for faster, less reliable communication.

Q 2 Explain TCP segment format

ANS ::
TCP Segment Format:
A TCP segment is the unit of data that is exchanged between two devices over a TCP
connection. The segment contains both header information and the data being sent.
The header consists of fields that control the segment's behavior, ensuring
reliable data transmission.

TCP Segment Header Fields:

Source Port (16 bits): Identifies the sending port.

Destination Port (16 bits): Identifies the receiving port.

Sequence Number (32 bits): Specifies the sequence number of the first byte of data
in this segment.

Acknowledgment Number (32 bits): If the ACK flag is set, this field holds the value
of the next expected sequence number.

Data Offset (4 bits): The length of the TCP header (in 32-bit words).

Reserved (3 bits): Reserved for future use (set to 0).

Flags (9 bits): Used to control the state of the connection.

URG: Urgent pointer field is valid.

ACK: Acknowledgment field is valid.

PSH: Push function (forces data to be sent immediately).

RST: Reset the connection.

SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers (used during connection setup).

FIN: Finish the connection (used for connection termination).

Window Size (16 bits): Indicates the size of the sender's receive window for flow
control.

Checksum (16 bits): Used for error-checking of the header and data.

Urgent Pointer (16 bits): If the URG flag is set, points to the end of the urgent
data.

Options (Variable length): Optional fields like Maximum Segment Size (MSS), window
scaling, and timestamps.

Data: Contains the actual data being transmitted.

1. Source Port (16 bits)

+-------------------------------+
| Source Port (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+

2. Destination Port (16 bits)

+-------------------------------+
| Destination Port (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+

3. Sequence Number (32 bits)

+--------------------------------------------+
| Sequence Number (32 bits) |
+--------------------------------------------+

4. Acknowledgment Number (32 bits)

+--------------------------------------------+
| Acknowledgment Number (32 bits) |
+--------------------------------------------+

5. Data Offset (4 bits) and Reserved (3 bits) + Flags (9 bits)

+--------------------------------------------+
| Data Offset (4 bits) | Reserved (3 bits) |
| Flags (9 bits) |
+--------------------------------------------+

6. Window Size (16 bits)

+-------------------------------+
| Window Size (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+

7. Checksum (16 bits)

+-------------------------------+
| Checksum (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+

8. Urgent Pointer (16 bits)

+-------------------------------+
| Urgent Pointer (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+

9. Options (Variable Length) (Optional)

+--------------------------------------------+
| Options (Variable Length) (Optional) |
+--------------------------------------------+

10. Data (Variable Length)

+--------------------------------------------+
| Data (Actual Application Data) |
+--------------------------------------------+

Q 3 3-Way Handshaking in TCP

ANS 3-Way Handshaking in TCP

The 3-way handshake is the process used by TCP to establish a reliable connection
between a client and a server. It involves three steps to ensure both sides are
synchronized and ready to begin data transmission.

Here’s the step-by-step explanation with a diagram:

Step-by-Step Explanation of the 3-Way Handshake:

Step 1: SYN (Synchronize)

The client sends a TCP segment with the SYN flag set, requesting to start a
connection.

The segment contains a sequence number (let's say Seq = X), which indicates the
first byte of data the client is going to send.

Step 2: SYN-ACK (Synchronize and Acknowledge)

The server responds with a TCP segment that has both the SYN and ACK flags set.

The SYN flag indicates that the server is willing to accept the connection, and the
ACK flag confirms receipt of the client's SYN segment.

The server sends back its own sequence number (Seq = Y) and acknowledges the
client's sequence number (Ack = X + 1).

Step 3: ACK (Acknowledge)

The client sends a final ACK segment back to the server, confirming the server’s
sequence number (Ack = Y + 1).

Now both the client and server have synchronized their sequence numbers, and the
connection is established.

Q 4 explain the link state algorithm with dijkstra algo

ans :;

Link-State Algorithm with Dijkstra's Algorithm

The Link-State Routing Algorithm is a dynamic routing algorithm that routers use to
determine the best path for forwarding data packets. This algorithm is used by
protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and IS-IS. The Link-State algorithm
relies on each router having a complete view of the network topology, and it uses
Dijkstra’s Algorithm to compute the shortest path to all other nodes in the
network.

Key Steps in the Link-State Algorithm:

Initialization: Each router discovers its immediate neighbors and the costs to
reach them (e.g., via link-state advertisements or LSAs).

Flooding: Each router sends its link-state information to all other routers in the
network. This information includes the state of each link (up or down) and the cost
of each link.

Building a Link-State Database: Each router uses the information received to build
a link-state database (LSDB), which is a complete map of the network.

Shortest Path Calculation (Dijkstra’s Algorithm): Using the link-state database,

each router runs Dijkstra’s Algorithm to calculate the shortest path to all other
routers. The result is a routing table that the router uses to forward packets.

Dijkstra’s Algorithm:
Dijkstra’s algorithm is used by each router to calculate the shortest path from
itself to all other routers in the network. The algorithm works as follows:

Initialization:

Start with the source router (let’s call it S) and set the initial distance to
itself as 0 (i.e., Dist(S) = 0).

Set the distance to all other routers as infinity (Dist(X) = ∞ for all routers X
except S).

Mark all routers as unvisited.

Iteration:

Select the unvisited router with the smallest distance (U), then mark it as
visited.

Update the distances to the neighboring routers of U using the formula:

New Distance
=
Dist(U)
+
cost of the edge (link) between U and Neighbor
.
New Distance=Dist(U)+cost of the edge (link) between U and Neighbor.
If the new calculated distance to a neighboring router is smaller than its previous
distance, update the distance.

Repeat:

Repeat the process for all routers in the network, ensuring that the shortest path
to each router is calculated.

Final Output:

Once all routers are visited, the shortest path tree from the source router is
built, and the distances to all other routers are known.

Q 5 Subnetting Ke Sums

ANS :::

1. What is Subnetting?

Subnetting is dividing a larger network into smaller, manageable sub-networks

(subnets).

It helps optimize IP address usage and improve network management.

2. Basic Steps for Subnetting:

Identify the Network Address and the Subnet Mask.

Determine the Required Number of Subnets (How many smaller networks you need).

Borrow Bits from the host portion to create the required number of subnets.

Formula for number of subnets:

2
�
≥
Required Subnets
2
n
≥Required Subnets, where
�
n is the number of borrowed bits.
Calculate the New Subnet Mask based on the number of borrowed bits.

Example: A /24 subnet mask means 24 bits for the network, leaving 8 bits for hosts.

Divide the Network into smaller subnets.

Each subnet will have a network address, usable IP range, and a broadcast address.

3. Example 1:

IP Address: 192.168.1.0/24

Required: 4 subnets

New Subnet Mask: /26 (Borrow 2 bits)

Subnets:

192.168.1.0/26 → Range: 192.168.1.0 - 192.168.1.63

192.168.1.64/26 → Range: 192.168.1.64 - 192.168.1.127

192.168.1.128/26 → Range: 192.168.1.128 - 192.168.1.191

192.168.1.192/26 → Range: 192.168.1.192 - 192.168.1.255

4. Example 2:

IP Address: 10.0.0.0/8

Required Subnets: Subnets with 1024 hosts.

New Subnet Mask: /22 (Borrow 14 bits)

Subnets:

10.0.0.0/22 → Range: 10.0.0.0 - 10.0.3.255

10.0.4.0/22 → Range: 10.0.4.0 - 10.0.7.255

10.0.8.0/22 → Range: 10.0.8.0 - 10.0.11.255

Key Formulae:
Number of Subnets:
2
�
2
n
, where
�
n is the number of borrowed bits.

Number of Hosts:
2
â„Ž
−
2
2
h
 −2, where
â„Ž
h is the number of host bits. Subtract 2 for network and broadcast addresses.

Q 6 distance vector ke sums

ANS

Sure! Here's a **Distance Vector Table** format for each router based on the
previous example. Each router maintains a table that shows the **minimum distance**
to every other router in the network.

---

### **Initial Routing Tables:**

| **Router** | **A** | **B** | **C** | **D** |

|------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| **A** | 0 | 1 | 4 | ∞ |
| **B** | 1 | 0 | 2 | 5 |
| **C** | 4 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
| **D** | ∞ | 5 | 1 | 0 |

---

### **After 1st Update (Exchange information):**

Router **A** receives information from B and C, router **B** from A and C, and so
on.

| **Router** | **A** | **B** | **C** | **D** |

|------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| **A** | 0 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
| **B** | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 |
| **C** | 4 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
| **D** | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0 |

---

### **Explanation of Updates**:

1. **Router A**:
- After receiving information from **B** and **C**, A updates its distance to
**D** via **B** (`1 + 5 = 6`).

2. **Router B**:
- After receiving information from **A** and **C**, B updates its distance to
**D** via **C** (`2 + 1 = 3`).

3. **Router C**:
- No update needed because the information received from **A** and **B** doesn't
offer shorter paths.

4. **Router D**:
- After receiving information from **B** and **C**, D updates its distance to
**A** via **C** (`1 + 4 = 5`).

---

### **Final Routing Tables (After Convergence)**:

After several iterations, the routers converge and reach the final state where no
more updates happen.

| **Router** | **A** | **B** | **C** | **D** |

|------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| **A** | 0 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
| **B** | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 |
| **C** | 4 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
| **D** | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0 |