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Ashwin Pajankar

Practical Linux with Raspberry Pi OS

Quick Start
1st ed.
Ashwin Pajankar
Nashik, Maharashtra, India

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​978-1-4842-6509-3. For
more detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​
source-code.

ISBN 978-1-4842-6509-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-6510-9

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6510-9

Apress Standard
© Ashwin Pajankar 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business

Media New York, 1 NY Plaza, New York, NY 10014. Phone 1-800-
SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail [email protected],
or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC
and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media
Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware
corporation.
I dedicate this book to Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, a great Indian-
American astrophysicist.
Introduction
I have been working with Raspberry Pi since 2014. I was introduced to
it while volunteering as an organizer at a hackathon at my former
workplace. And as I have mentioned in my author biography, I have
decent experience with assembly programming, microcontrollers, and
digital electronics since my time as an undergraduate student of
computer science. Raspberry Pi and Arduino are great choices for
someone who wants the best of both of the worlds of computer science
and electronics. Additionally, if you wish to use Linux, C, Python, and
shell programming to drive your motors, LEDs, and other peripherals,
then Raspberry Pi and similar single-board computers are the best fit
for your applications.
While this is an introductory book for beginners who are new to the
world of SBCs and hardware hacking, once you follow the book in
detail, you will be very much comfortable exploring the world of SBCs
and Raspberry Pi on your own.
This entire book is based on the challenges and struggles I faced
while working the very first time with Raspberry Pi (abbreviated as RPi
hereafter). I have listed all the tips and tricks I learned while exploring
the RPi in the first few months. At that time, I really wished that I could
get a book that would make my journey easier and so decided to write
one myself. So, when the opportunity presented itself, I compiled all my
experiences in this book so that anyone looking for help to get started
with Raspberry Pi can benefit from this.
While this book primarily covers the RPi OS flavor of Linux, I have
made sure that I also introduce the readers to other important topics,
such as programming with high-level languages like C, C++, and Python.
I also introduce readers to GPIO (General-Purpose Input/Output)
programming and various buses. Finally, I cover installation of a few
popular Linux desktop environments such as XFCE, LXDE, and KDE
Plasma. The appendix covers a few additional tips and tricks.
I hope that the book serves the readers well and they will enjoy the
book as much as I enjoyed writing it.
Acknowledgments
I am thankful to Mr. Massimo Nardone, the technical reviewer of the
book. I want to express my gratitude toward him for helping me make
this book better. I would also like to express my gratitude to the Apress
team. Aaron Black helped with the coordination of the entire book
process, and Jessica Vakili guided the editorial process. James Markham
helped me with the editorial review. I am also thankful to Celestin
Suresh and Aditee Mirashi for giving me an opportunity to write this
book.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction to Raspberry Pi
Single-Board Computers
Raspberry Pi
Linux and Distributions
Raspberry Pi OS
Raspberry Pi OS Setup
Preparing the SD Card Manually
Booting Up the Pi Board for the First Time
Configuring the RPi Board
Connecting Various RPi Board Models to the Internet
Summary
Chapter 2:​Getting Ready
Operating System Shell
Raspberry Pi OS GUI
The Command Prompt
Updating the RPi OS
Linux Filesystem
Remotely Accessing the RPi
Summary
Chapter 3:​Directory Commands and Text Editors
Absolute and Relative Paths
Commands:​pwd, tree, and cd
Command:​ls
Command:​touch
Various Text Editors
 Create and Delete Directories
Case-Sensitive Names of Directories and Files
Summary
Chapter 4:​More Commands
Configuring the RPi Board
What Is sudo?​
Getting Help on Commands
Network-Related Commands
Commands:​File Operations
Printing a String
Control Operators
Filename Globbing
Command:​History
Pipes
Summary
Chapter 5:​Useful Unix Commands and Tools
Shell and Environment Variables
Useful Linux Commands
Useful Unix Tools
Summary
Chapter 6:​Shell Scripting
Unix File Permissions
Command:​nohup
Beginning Shell Scripting
User Input
Expressions in the Shell
 If Statement
Switch Case
Length of a Shell Variable
Command-Line Arguments
Function
Loops in the Shell
Comparing Strings
File Operations
Summary
Chapter 7:​I/​O Redirection and Cron
I/​O Redirection
stdin
stdout
Stderr
Crontab
Summary
Chapter 8:​Introduction to High-Level Programming Languages
C and C++ Programming
Python Programming Language
History of the Python Programming Language
Python Enhancement Proposals
Applications of Python
Python 3 on Debian Derivatives
Python Modes
Interactive Mode
Script Mode
 Summary
Chapter 9:​Programming with RPi GPIO
General-Purpose Input/​Output Pins
Programming with GPIO
Summary
Chapter 10:​Explore the RPi OS GUI
GUI Utilities on the RPi OS
Other Desktop Environments
XFCE
KDE Plasma
Summary
Appendix:​Additional Tools
Raspberry Pi Imager
Additional Utilities
Manjaro Linux
FreeBSD
Additional OSs
Index
About the Author
Ashwin Pajankar
holds a Master of Technology from IIIT Hyderabad. He started
programming and tinkering with electronics at the tender age of 7.
BASIC (Beginners’ All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was the first
programming language he worked with. He was gradually exposed to C
programming, 8085, and x86 assembly programming during his higher
secondary schooling. He is proficient in x86 assembly, C, C++, Java,
Python, and Linux shell programming. He is also proficient with
Raspberry Pi, Arduino, BBC Micro Bit, and other single-board
computers (SBCs) and microcontrollers. Ashwin is passionate about
training and mentoring. He has trained more than 100,000 trainees and
professionals through live training sessions and online training courses.
He has published more than a dozen books with both international and
Indian publishers. He has also reviewed numerous books and
educational video courses. This is his sixth book with Apress, and he is
working on more books. He regularly conducts programming boot
camps and hands-on training for software companies in Nashik, India.
He is also an avid YouTuber with more than 10,000 subscribers to
his channel. You can find him on LinkedIn.
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone
has more than 22 years of experiences in security, web/mobile
development, the cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT passions are
security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching how to program with
Android, Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than
20 years.
He holds a Master of Science in Computing Science from the
University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect, information security manager,
PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years.
© Ashwin Pajankar 2021
A. Pajankar, Practical Linux with Raspberry Pi OS
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6510-9_1

1. Introduction to Raspberry Pi
Ashwin Pajankar1
(1) Nashik, Maharashtra, India

I hope you have gone through the Table of Contents and Introduction. If
not, I highly recommend you go through them. This is the very first
chapter of the book, and I welcome you all to the exciting journey of
learning Linux with the Raspberry Pi Operating System.
In this chapter, we will learn the details about the most popular
platform and single-board computer family of our times, the Raspberry Pi.
Then we will learn a bit about Linux and the distribution of Linux that is
popularly used with the Raspberry Pi family (hereafter, I will use the
abbreviation RPi), the Raspberry Pi Operating System. We will learn how
to install it on a RPi board. The following is the list of the topics that we
will learn in this chapter:
Single-board computers
Raspberry Pi
Linux and distributions
Raspberry Pi OS setup
Configuring the RPi board
Connecting various RPi board models to the Internet
After completing this chapter, we will be comfortable with the
installation and the basic usage of the RPi board and the RPi OS.

Single-Board Computers
Single-board computers (also known as SBCs) have all the components of
a fully functioning computer like the processor, GPU, RAM, and I/O on a
single printed circuit board. This is in contrast with desktop or laptop
computers that have a motherboard which has various slots for RAM, the
processor, and the graphics card. Desktop or laptop computers can be
upgraded by replacing processors and graphics cards. We can also add
more RAM chips in the RAM slots. However, SBCs cannot be upgraded like
that. This is one of the major differences between traditional
desktops/laptops that are totally modular and SBCs. The key benefit of
the lack of modularity of SBCs is that the size of an entire computer is
very small. Most of the SBCs are a little bigger than a regular credit/debit
card, and they are very compact.
SBCs are used as technology demonstrators (prototypes), educational
computers, and embedded systems. There is a recent surge in the
popularity of SBCs due to advances in the fabrication process and
manufacturing technologies. We are living in an era where a new SBC or a
new version of an existing one is announced almost on a monthly basis.
The market is full of various SBCs and SBC families. A few prominent SBC
families are Raspberry Pi, Banana Pro, BeagleBoards, and Orange Pi.
Raspberry Pi is the most popular family of single-board computers
available in the market, and it is one of the best-selling computers in the
world. In the next section, we will have an overview of the Raspberry Pi
family of computers.

Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi is a family of SBCs developed by the Raspberry Pi
Foundation (www.raspberrypi.org/). It consists of many board
models, and all the current models under production are listed on the
foundation’s products page (www.raspberrypi.org/products/).
Throughout the book, I will be using a Raspberry Pi 4 Model B (the latest
board model in the family) with 4 GB RAM.
Table 1-1 lists the specifications of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B.
Table 1-1 Technical Specifications of Raspberry Pi 4 B

Component Specification
Processor Broadcom BCM2711, quad-core Cortex-A72 (ARM v8) 64-bit
SoC at 1.5 GHz
RAM LPDDR4-3200 SDRAM (2 GB or 4 GB or 8 GB)
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Anise-seed oil is soluble in 5 parts of 90 per cent. alcohol, and with
3½ times its volume of petroleum-ether yields a clear mixture. Its
mixture with four times its weight of petroleum-ether is turbid, but
becomes clear in ten minutes, while that with five times its volume
of petroleum-ether remains for a longer time turbid. In a fluid state
the oil, when exposed to the air, becomes resinous and loses its
property to crystallize. It should, therefore, be kept in tightly-closed
bottles in a cool, shady place.
Anise-seed oil is used in perfuming soaps and mouth waters. It
should, however, be used with prudence, since the sweetish,
penetrating odor of the oil readily overcomes the other volatile oils in
the mixture, and renders them inoperative.
Star anise oil very much resembles the ordinary anise-seed oil. It is
obtained from star anise, the fruit of Illicium anisatum, a tree
formerly supposed to be indigenous to Cochin China, and cultivated
in China, Japan, and the Phillipine Islands. However, according to
Messrs. Bourgeoin-Meiffre, a French firm of Hanoï (Tonkin), the star
anise oil found in commerce is exclusively produced in the French
colony Tonkin (Province Langson), the French government having
made over the entire sale of the oil to the above-mentioned firm.
According to a memoir published by Dr. Blondel, of Paris, the star
anise tree is not indigenous to the Chinese provinces Yunnan,
Quang-si, and Fo-Rien, but to the province Langson, which has by
conquest passed into French possession. Hence, the producers of
star anise and star anise oil are now under French control and, as it
seems, are obliged to sell all the oil produced to the above-
mentioned firm. If these statements should prove correct, the
Chinese harbors Macao and Hong Kong, from which the greater
portion of star anise oil was formerly exported, will lose their
importance in this respect and the product find its way direct from
Hanoï via Hayphong to Marseilles. The first shipment from
Bourgeoin-Meiffre arrived in Europe in December, 1890. According to
Messrs. Schimmel & Co.'s report, the product is put up and packed
exactly like that formerly shipped from Hong Kong, and the oil of
excellent quality.
Star anise oil differs from the ordinary oil in containing a much
smaller quantity of anethol, and hence congealing only at a
temperature of from 41° to 50° F. Besides the odor of the terpene
contained in star anise oil differs from that of the ordinary oil.
Admixtures of star anise oil can, therefore, be generally recognized
by the odor. Other methods recommended for its detection are
unreliable.
Balm oil.—The leaves of this plant, Melissa officinalis, yield by
distillation a volatile oil sometimes called oil of melissa. It is colorless
or yellowish, of a pleasant odor, has a specific gravity of 0.85 to
0.92, shows a slightly acid reaction and dissolves in 2 to 3 parts of
alcohol. It must not be confounded with the so-called East India oil
of melissa or citronella oil from Andropogon Nardus L. Balm oil is
occasionally used in the preparation of eau de Cologne.
Basil oil is distilled in Southern France from the fresh leaves of
Ocymum basilicum L., natural order Labiatæ. The oil shows the
peculiar odor of the herb and crystallizes a few degrees above 32° F.
In perfumery it is used as an addition to violet and other
preparations. The French also prepare a pommade basilique, which
serves as a cheap substitute for violet pomade.
Bayberry oil, or oil of bay leaves, is extracted by distillation from the
leaves of Myrcia acris or the bayberry tree. Many varieties of the tree
exist throughout the West Indies, which are scarcely to be
distinguished botanically, but have quite a different odor from that of
the genuine tree. Great care must, therefore, be taken in the
collection of the leaves which are to be used, as the admixture of a
small quantity of the other leaves may entirely spoil the product of
distillation. Two oils are obtained, a light oil of specific gravity of
0.870 to 0.990, and a heavy oil with specific gravity 1.023 to 1.037.
When first distilled the oil is colorless, but by exposure to the air
quickly acquires a yellowish tint and, if the exposure be continued,
becomes quite dark in color. The odor of the freshly-distilled oil is
rank, but in the course of from three to six months it becomes
mellow, and ripens into the agreeable fragrance so much liked in the
best specimens of bay-rum. The oil is soluble in all proportions in 95
per cent. alcohol, also in ether and petroleum benzine. Its chief use
is for the preparation of bay-rum.
Bergamot oil is obtained from the rinds of the fruit of citrus
bergamia, a tree belonging to the natural order Aurantiaceæ. The
rind is grated and the oil running off separated from the aqueous
fluid and cellular substance by means of a separating funnel, or the
grated mass is distilled in a current of carbonic acid. The oil is very
fluid and pale yellow, but poorer qualities are frequently greenish or
brownish. When distilled with water it becomes perfectly colorless,
but is less durable. Its odor is very pleasant, somewhat like a
mixture of orange and lemon oils. Its specific gravity is 0.87 to 0.89.
By standing for some time, the oil separates white crystalline scales
(stearoptene), which melt at 223° F. The oil becomes solid a few
degrees below the freezing point. The Messina oil of bergamot is
considered the best. From other volatile oils of the orange family,
bergamot oil differs in dissolving readily in caustic potash, forming a
clear solution. It has, however, the same property as other oils of a
similar origin, of igniting with iodine and not dissolving santalin, the
red resinous coloring matter of santal-wood.
Bergamot oil may be tested as to its purity by mixing it with alcohol.
It becomes pale gray-yellow, forms a sediment which adheres firmly
to the vessel and, on shaking, floats about in the form of flakes.
After two days the sediment is inconsiderable and difficult to divide
into flakes in the clear yellow fluid by shaking. The oil is frequently
adulterated with alcohol. To detect such adulteration, Righini
recommends the following method: Mix 15 parts of the oil with a like
quantity of pure olive oil or oil of sweet almonds. If alcohol is
present, it immediately separates, like water, from the fat oil; if no
separation takes place the oil is not adulterated with alcohol. The
tannin test also gives reliable results. In storing oil of bergamot great
care must be exercised to exclude air and light, as it is one of the
most changeable oils and soon acquires an odor resembling that of
turpentine.
Large quantities of oil of bergamot are used in perfumery. It forms,
so to say, the basis for most of the finer products. In Cologne water
it forms the principal constituent in the mixture of volatile oils.
Cajeput oil (oleum cajeputi).—This oil is obtained by distillation from
the leaves of several species of Melaleucæ, natural order
Caryophyllaceæ, indigenous to the East Indies, Banda, and Malabar.
The ordinary oil has a greenish color and possesses a strong odor of
camphor and a pungent taste. It is chiefly imported by way of
Amsterdam, where it is partially discolored by rectification, so that
two kinds, the white and green cajeput oil, are brought into
commerce. The color of the latter is generally supposed to be due to
a resinous substance containing chlorophyl, though others assert
that it originates from the copper of the distilling apparatus and the
copper flasks in which it is dispatched. The specific gravity of the oil
varies between 0.910 and 0.940, though specifically lighter and
heavier oils are said to occur.
It is claimed that an artificial cajeput oil is often prepared from
camphor and rosemary oil, the green color being obtained by
distillation with milfoil. The presence of camphor may be readily
determined by thoroughly triturating a few drops of the oil with
sugar and then dissolving in water, whereby the particles of camphor
separate in the form of white flakes upon the surface.
Cajeput oil is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine and
rosemary oil. Such adulteration is recognized by pure cajeput oil
dissolving clear in equal parts of 90 per cent. alcohol, which is not
the case with the other two oils.
Camomile or chamomile oil (oleum anthemidis).—Two varieties of oil
of camomile are found in commerce, one green and the other blue.
The first is derived from the flowers of the genuine or Roman
camomile (Anthemis nobilis) and the blue from the common variety
(Matricaria chamomila). The last oil is the one chiefly used in the
manufacture of perfumery and in medicine.
Blue camomile oil is generally obtained by distillation. In distilling,
metal Florentine flasks should be used, as the oil adheres
tenaciously to glass vessels and the distillate has to be treated with
ether. The pure oil has a beautiful blue color, and on heating forms
blue vapors. It has a penetrating odor which only by strong dilution
becomes similar to that of camomile. By storing in the light and the
simultaneous presence of air, the oil turns green; later on, brown,
and is finally converted into a thickly-fluid, brownish mass.
Green camomile oil from the genuine or Roman camomile possesses
an agreeable odor of fresh lemons; it is more seldom used than the
other.
On account of the slight yield obtained from the flowers, camomile
oil is rather expensive.
Caraway oil (oleum carui) is obtained by distillation from the seeds
of the well-known aromatic plant Carum carui, or the caraway,
natural order Umbelliferæ. In a fresh, purified state the oil is
colorless, very thinly-fluid and possesses a pungent taste. The oil
prepared from cleansed Dutch seed is best liked, while that distilled
from Norwegian or Tyrolese seed is not much in demand, its taste
and odor not being so pure on account of the many impurities mixed
with these kinds of seed.
Caraway oil consists mainly of a terpene, C10H16, called carvene,
specific gravity 0.870, and of carvol, specific gravity 0.960. The
richer the oil in carvol, the higher its specific gravity. Good caraway
oil should have a specific gravity of 0.900 to 0.910. The carvol being
the actual bearer of the aroma, the value of the oil exclusively
depends on the content of it. In the better varieties of oil, the
content of carvol amounts to from 45 to 50 per cent., while poorer
qualities generally contain only from 40 to 42 per cent. The carvol
and carvene are now frequently separated by fractional distillation.
The carvol, which has three times as strong an odor and taste as the
carvene, dissolves with much greater facility in alcohol. The carvene
being offered at very low prices might be suitable for perfuming
cheap soaps.
Caraway oil obtained by distillation from the plant has a less
agreeable odor than that from the seed, and possesses an acrid
resinous taste.
The purity of caraway oil is recognized by its dissolving clear in equal
parts of 90 per cent. alcohol. If such is not the case, the oil contains
either an admixture of oil of turpentine or does not possess the full
normal content of carvol. Pure caraway oil does not detonate with
iodine, which is the case with oil containing oil of turpentine.
Caraway oil is chiefly used for perfuming soap; for handkerchief
perfumes it is not suitable.
Cedar oil (oleum cedri) is obtained by distillation from the shavings
of the wood of the American or Virginia cedar (Juniperus virginiana).
For the distillation of oil the waste falling off in the manufacture of
lead-pencils is almost exclusively used. It yields about 2 to 3 per
cent. of oil. The oil is thinly-fluid, of specific gravity 0.9622, of a
greenish color, and an agreeable but not very penetrating odor. It is
a mixture of a terpene, boiling at about 540° F., and of a
hydrocarbon. The latter, which is called cidrin, forms the fluid portion
of the oil. It has a specific gravity of 0.984, and boils at about 459°
F.
Cedar oil is extensively used in the manufacture of toilet soap, it
serving as the basis for other perfumes. Care must, however, be
taken that its odor does not preponderate, as in such case it readily
produces an unpleasant effect. The oil being cheap, adulteration is
scarcely to be feared.
A volatile oil is also obtained by distillation from the leaves of the
Juniperus virginiana. In odor it resembles savin oil, and is unfit for
perfuming purposes.
Cherry-laurel oil (oleum laurocerasi) is the volatile oil, which contains
prussic acid, obtained from the leaves of the cherry-laurel (Prunus
laurocerasus, L.). Like bitter almonds, the leaves contain some
amygdalin. Hence they are macerated with water and allowed to
stand in a warm place for 24 hours. By subsequent distillation a
volatile oil is obtained which closely resembles oil of bitter almonds,
but differs in some respects. It is colorless or yellowish, rarely
reddish, and of specific gravity 1.05 to 1.06. In its behavior towards
air, solvents, and reagents, it does not essentially differ from oil of
bitter almonds.[5]
To detect oil of mirbane in cherry-laurel oil, Enrico Pega adds some
alcohol to the oil to be tested and then mixes it with some alcoholic
potash lye and a few drops of ferric chloride solution. After standing
for a few hours the mixture is shaken and distilled. A small portion of
the oil distilling over is freed from water, poured upon a few small
pieces of pure caustic potash in a test-tube, and heated over a lamp.
If the sample is pure it remains colorless; in the presence of oil of
mirbane it acquires a dark coloration in consequence of the
formation of nitrobenzide and aniline, a few drops of calcium
chloride solution brought into the mixture producing, for this reason,
a violet coloration.
Cherry laurel oil is but seldom used for perfuming purposes.
Cinnamon oils.—There are four different kinds of this oil, viz., Ceylon
cinnamon oil, cassia oil, cinnamon root oil, and oil of cinnamon
leaves. Though the first two are very much alike, the Ceylon oil is
considered the best.
Ceylon cinnamon oil (oleum cinnamoni ceylonici).—Formerly this oil
was exclusively distilled from chips and waste of the genuine
cinnamon bark of the Cinnamonum ceylonicum, Nees, and came into
commerce from Ceylon. However, the fabrication of the oil from
cinnamon waste or chips is now extensively carried on in Germany,
and this oil, being prepared with the assistance of more perfect
apparatus, has almost entirely supplanted that exported from
Ceylon.
When fresh, the Ceylon oil is colorless, but when stored for some
time it becomes first golden yellow and later on brownish. It is
thickly-fluid and heavier than water, its specific gravity being 1.060
to 1.090. It has an agreeable, aromatic odor and a biting but pure,
sweet taste. Its principal constituent is cinnamaldehyde (C9H8O),
and it contains, besides, 4 to 8 per cent. of eugenol. The presence of
the latter in cinnamon oil may be established by shaking with 15 per
cent. soda-solution, whereby the eugenol is dissolved, and
decomposing the aqueous solution with hydrochloric acid. The
eugenol separated thereby gives in alcoholic solution, when
compounded with a trace of ferric chloride, a beautiful blue color.
Cassia oil (oleum cassiæ).—In China and Cochin China this oil is
obtained by distillation from the bark, unripe fruits, buds, and other
waste of the Cinnamonum cassia or Cinnamonum aromaticum, Nees,
a tree indigenous to those countries. It has a pale yellow color,
which in time becomes brown. It is thickly-fluid, of specific gravity
1.05 to 1.07, and possesses a sweet taste with an acrid after-taste.
Like cinnamon oil, it consists chiefly of cinnamaldehyde, but contains
no eugenol, and hence can be readily distinguished from Ceylon oil
by the above-mentioned reaction. One part of pure cassia oil
dissolves in two parts of 80 per cent. alcohol.
Cinnamon root oil and oil of cinnamon leaves.—Neither of these oils
contains cinnamaldehyde, but abundant quantities of eugenol, the
root oil as much as 50 to 70 per cent. The root oil is quite limpid and
has an agreeable odor of cinnamon and cloves. The leaf oil is thickly-
fluid, of the consistency of castor oil.
The Ceylon oil is frequently adulterated with cassia oil. Such
adulteration is very difficult to detect, and can only be recognized by
experts by the odor and taste.
The quality of cassia oil is recognized by the taste and odor,
especially on heating, and the high specific gravity, in consequence
of which the oil sinks in water. According to Hager, cassia oil is
frequently adulterated with oil of cloves. This is, however, scarcely
probable, the price of oil of cloves being, on an average, higher than
that of cassia oil. The latter, however, is frequently adulterated with
cheaper thickly-fluid volatile oils, especially with cedar oil. In this
case the oil does not dissolve in the above-mentioned proportion in
alcohol.
The value of cassia oil is dependent on its contents of
cinnamaldehyde. Hence, the establishment of its actual value
requires a quantitative determination of its contents of
cinnamaldehyde, which unfortunately presents great difficulties. For
this purpose Schimmel & Co. proceed indirectly as follows: 75
grammes of cassia oil in a capacious boiling flask are mixed with 300
grammes of a boiling-hot 30 per cent. solution of acid sodium
sulphite, whereby cinnamaldehyde-sodium sulphite is immediately
separated. The whole is then vigorously agitated and allowed to rest
for a short time. (With oils rich in aldehyde considerable heating
generally takes place, which must eventually be moderated by the
addition of cold water.) Next add about 200 grammes of hot water
and heat the whole, with frequent shaking, in the water-bath until
the combination of the aldehyde with the acid-sodium sulphite is
completely dissolved, and the non-aldehydes in the form of an oily
layer float upon the solution of the aldehyde salt. Now allow the
whole to cool, then shake twice with ether; first, with about 200
cubic centimeters, and then with 100; combine the ethereal extracts
of the non-aldehydes separated by means of a separatory funnel,
and filter them into a capacious, previously-weighed beaker provided
with a platinum wire, the lower end of which is bent in the form of a
spiral. Now evaporate the ether as much as possible, by placing the
beaker in hot water. When by swinging the beaker the remaining
fluid no longer foams up, allow to cool off and weigh. Now return
the beaker-glass to the water-bath for ten minutes, weigh again
after cooling, and repeat the operation until the difference between
two weighings does not amount to more than 0.3 gramme at the
utmost. The weighing previous to the last is taken as the correct
one.[6]
The weight of the non-aldehydes thus obtained is deducted from the
cassia oil used, the difference giving the content of cinnamaldehyde
in the latter.
For example:—
Used 79.71 grammes of oil.
First weighing of the beaker after evaporating the ether 147.55 grammes
Second 146.84 "
Third 146.58 "
Tare of the beaker 128.34 "
Hence non-aldehydes in the oil 146.84 grammes.
Less tare 128.34 "
———
= 18.50 grammes.
Calculated to per cent., 23.1 per cent.
100 - 23.1 = 76.9 per cent. cinnamaldehyde.

By accurately following the directions given, the difference between

two controlling determinations will be only a few tenths per cent.,
seldom as much as 1 per cent. For practical purposes, for which
alone this method is intended, this is more than sufficient.
According to the reports of Schimmel & Co., all the cassia oil brought
into commerce from China was for a considerable time adulterated
with resin and petroleum, they having found as much as 30 per
cent. of resin in the oil. Such adulteration can be established by the
determination of the specific gravity and distilling the oil. Good
cassia oil should show a specific gravity of 1.05 to 1.07 at 59° F., and
by distillation 90 per cent. of pure cassia oil must pass over. The
residue should not solidify after cooling and acquire the character of
a brittle resin; it must remain at least thickly-fluid, and under no
conditions amount to more than 10 per cent.
Citron oil (oleum citri), from the peel of the fruit of Citrus medica or
the citron tree. The oil is prepared in a similar manner to that of oil
of bergamot, either by expression or distillation, the latter process
yielding more and purer oil.
Rectified citron oil is colorless, of an agreeable penetrating odor and
acrid taste, and very sensitive to light and air. By exposure to light it
turns yellow, and if air be admitted at the same time, it is first
converted into a fluid which, on account of its content of ozone,
possesses strong bleaching powers. The oil at the same time
acquires a disagreeable odor, resembling that of oil of turpentine,
and is finally converted into a resinous mass.
Citron oil is frequently adulterated with oil of orange and sometimes
with oil of bergamot. These adulterations are readily detected by an
experienced person by the odor, this being in fact the best guide.
The specific gravity of citron oil is 0.850 at 59° F.; it boils at from
332.6° to 343.4° F. and congeals at 4° F.
Citronella oil (oleum citronellæ) is chiefly distilled in Ceylon from the
lemon grass, Andropogon Nardus, L. It is quite limpid, of a greenish-
yellow to brown color, and has an odor resembling that of genuine
citron oil. Its specific gravity is 0.896 at 59° F., and it boils at from
392° to 410° F. Of the various oils reaching the market that with the
trade-mark "Fisher" is most in demand, it being distinguished by
special purity. Edward Kremers has found in citronella oil an
aldehyde, C7H14O, a terpene, C10H16, citronellol, which is isomeric
with borneol; further, acetic acid and valerianic acid.
The Indian distillers, it is claimed, adulterate the citronella oil with
petroleum, an addition up to 25 per cent. being not uncommon.
According to experiments by Schimmel & Co., pure citronella oil must
give a clear solution, when 1 part of the oil is vigorously shaken with
10 parts of 80 per cent. alcohol. If, in executing the test, the kind of
turbidity is observed, and whether the portion insoluble in alcohol
separates, after standing, upon the surface or on the bottom of the
fluid, and further, if the above-mentioned quantity of alcohol is not
added at one time, but at first only 1 or 2 parts of it, a conclusion
may be drawn as to the kind and quantity of the adulterant.
Petroleum causes a milky-white turbidity, while in the presence of fat
oil the mixture becomes turbid, but not actually milky. As a rule, fat
oil deposits, after standing, on the bottom, while petroleum floats
upon the surface of the fluid. Citronella oil adulterated with fat oil
does not dissolve in 1 to 2 parts nor in 10 parts of 80 per cent.
alcohol, while oil adulterated with not too large a quantity of
petroleum, gives a clear solution with 1 to 2 parts. The
determination of the specific gravity may also serve for the detection
of adulterations. This holds good, however, only for petroleum,
which reduces the specific gravity, an addition of fat oil producing no
deviation in this respect. The specific gravity of the oil should not be
below 0.895 at 59° F.
Citronella oil is much used for perfuming cheap hair oils and toilet
soaps; it is the chief constituent of all perfumes for honey-soaps. In
the American soap industry it is extensively used, the yearly
consumption being estimated at 1½ million ounces.
Cloves, oil of (oleum caryophylli), is obtained by distillation with
steam, or by extraction from the cloves of commerce, which are the
dried unexpanded flower buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus, L., or the
clove tree. Oil of cloves, when fresh, is almost colorless, but on
exposure to air acquires a brownish coloration and a thickly fluid
consistency. It has the aromatic taste and odor of cloves, and a
specific gravity of 1.300 to 1.065. It frequently shows a slightly acid
reaction, boils at 482° F., and congeals at 4° F. It is readily soluble in
alcohol, ether, and strong acetic acid. It consists of a terpene
(C10H16) and eugenol (C10H12O2), the odor of the oil being due to
the latter. The terpene has a specific gravity of 0.918, and in
distilling passes over first (light oil of cloves). The eugenol, when
fresh, is colorless, has the odor and taste of cloves, a specific gravity
of 1.063 at 65° F., boils at 487.4° F., is insoluble in water and
glycerin, but soluble in alcohol, ether and glacial acetic acid. Its
alcoholic solution is colored magnificently blue by ferric chloride. If in
an alkaline solution it is oxidized with potassium permanganate,
vanillin being formed.
An inferior quality of oil is obtained from the stems of the clove
buds. It dissolves with greater difficulty than the oil prepared from
the buds, and has a darker red-brown color.
To test the value of oil of cloves, introduce, according to Stohman,
into a graduated glass cylinder 10 volumes ether, 10 oil of cloves,
and 30 of a 10-per cent. soda solution. After vigorous shaking, the
eugenol dissolves; the increase in volume of the aqueous fluid is
then proportional to the quantity of eugenol present. For more exact
determinations, dissolve a weighed quantity of oil, repeatedly shake
the aqueous fluid with ether to remove the terpene, then decompose
the eugenol-sodium with dilute sulphuric acid, dissolve the separated
eugenol in ether and weigh after evaporating the ethereal fluid.
Good oil of cloves does not contain less than 80 per cent. of
eugenol, and frequently 90 per cent. or more.
Oil of cloves is chiefly adulterated with copaiba oil and cedar oil.
Such adulteration is recognized by the oil not forming a clear
solution in every proportion with alcohol, as is the case with pure oil
of cloves.
Oil of cloves is much used for perfuming purposes.
Eucalyptus oil (oleum eucalypti) is obtained from the leaves of
various trees of the eucalyptus family. According to Merk two kinds
of oil must be strictly kept apart: oleum eucalypti from the leaves of
eucalyptus globulus and oleum eucalypti australe, the former being
used in medicine, and the latter, which is considerably cheaper,
chiefly for perfuming purposes. However, Piesse's opinion that
eucalyptus oil, as far as its odor is concerned, does not deserve to
be classed among perfumes is undoubtedly correct. It has an odor
between that of oil of turpentine and cajeput oil, and as long as
perfumery is the art of sweet odors, such oil cannot be designated a
perfume.
When not rectified, eucalyptus oil is mostly yellowish or bluish. In a
rectified state it is colorless, clear, limpid, lighter than water, of a
strong odor, and acrid taste. The oil from eucalyptus globulus has a
specific gravity of 0.900 to 0.925, and dissolves in every proportion
in 90 per cent. alcohol. It is optically inactive or turns the plane of
polarization slightly to the right. On standing with sodium it acquires
a yellowish coloration, and does not detonate with iodine. The oil
from eucalyptus australe has a specific gravity of 0.86 to 0.87, and is
but sparingly soluble in 90 per cent. alcohol, so that even a solution
prepared in the proportion of 1:15 is turbid. It turns the plane of
polarization strongly to the left; acquires, on standing with sodium, a
red coloration, and detonates with iodine.
Eucalyptus oil consists of eucalyptol and eucalyptene, and perhaps
other hydrocarbons. The content of the first, on which depends the
medicinal value of the oil, varies very much in the oils from the
different species of eucalyptus, the oil from some species, it is said,
containing no eucalyptol whatever.
Eucalyptol (C24H20O2) is limpid, colorless, turns the plane of
polarization, has a specific gravity of 0.905, and boils at 347° F. Its
vapor mixed with air has an agreeable, refreshing taste, and its
dilute solutions remind one of roses. Eucalyptene (C24H18) has a
specific gravity of 0.836, and boils at 329° F.
Fennel oil (oleum fœniculi) is derived by distillation from the fruits of
Fœniculum vulgare, Gaertner. Large quantities of it are produced in
Saxony, and also in Galicea. It is quite colorless, limpid, of specific
gravity 0.940 to 0.970 and, with a full content of stearoptene,
possesses a nauseous sweet taste and odor. It contains 60 to 70 per
cent. of anethol and congeals at from 41° to 50° F. to a crystalline
mass. The leaves of the plant also contain a volatile oil, which is,
however, less valued than the seed-oil.
Good fennel oil should dissolve clear in 1 to 2 parts of 90 per cent.
alcohol. Direct adulterations of this oil do not occur, but the
stearoptene is frequently withdrawn by fractional distillation whereby
the oil loses much in value. Such oil freed from stearoptene does not
congeal, has a more bitter than sweet taste and does not dissolve in
the above-mentioned proportion in alcohol.
In perfumery fennel oil is but little used; sometimes in connection
with other volatile oils for perfuming soaps.
Geranium oil, palmarosa oil, Turkish geranium oil is obtained from
Andropogon Pachnodes. It is yellowish, limpid, of specific gravity
0.890 at 59° F., possesses a very agreeable rose-like odor
resembling that of geranium oils from Pelargonium radula, Aiton,
and for this reason is generally designated as Turkish geranium oil.
The odor of the oil is improved by shaking it with water containing
lemon juice, any content of copper being thereby removed. The
washed oil is then brought into shallow dishes and exposed for two
or three weeks to the sun, whereby its odor becomes still more like
that of rose oil. The oil thus prepared is much used for adulterating
rose oil. Turkish geranium oil is also much used for the adulteration
of genuine geranium oil and is itself adulterated with oil of
turpentine. It is extensively employed in perfumery, especially for
perfuming hair oils and pomades, and in conjunction with geranium
oils for rose soap.
East Indian geranium oil is obtained, chiefly in the Presidency of
Bombay, from Andropogon Schoenantus, L. It is greenish-yellow to
yellow-brown, has a specific gravity of 0.906 at 59° F., and consists
mainly of geraniol (C10H18O). Its odor is rose-like, though modified
by a lemon-like odor. It is principally used for perfuming cheaper
articles.
French and African geranium oils (oleum geranii) are obtained by
distillation with water from the leaves of various species of
pelargonium. Many different kinds of this oil are found in commerce.
The finest and most expensive are the Spanish and French geranium
oils, so-called rosé, which are distinguished by their fine odor, closely
resembling that of rose oil. They are derived from Pelargonium
radula, and are either yellowish, brownish, or pale green, the
brownish oils being preferred. It congeals at 60.8° F. and turns the
plane of polarization to the right. Another good geranium oil is the
African, which is chiefly prepared in Algiers from Pelargonium
roseum, Wildenow, and P. odoratissimum, Aiton. It closely resembles
the French oil, but turns the plane of polarization to the left.
French geranium oil is said to be frequently adulterated with fat or
copaiba oil; but geranium oil being soluble in 70 per cent. alcohol,
such adulterations are readily detected. Add to 5 cubic centimeters
of 70 per cent. alcohol (specific gravity 0.890) at 59° to 62.5° F., 10
drops of the oil, and shake. If a clear solution results the oil is very
likely unadulterated.
The so-called Turkish geranium oil is frequently found mixed with
cocoanut oil. To detect this, place the oil in a test-tube in ice or a
cold mixture for several hours, whereby the cocoanut oil separates
as a white substance. Adulterations of upward to 20 per cent. are
said to frequently occur.
Reliable tests to detect an adulteration of the better qualities of
geranium oil with those of a lower grade do not exist, the odor being
the only guide.
Jasmine oil or oil of jessamine, from the flowers of Jasminium
officinale, L., and J. grandiflorum.—The oil is exclusively obtained by
the absorption process, and is the most prized by the perfumer. It is,
however, exceedingly rare on account of the enormous cost of its
production. The extract of jasmine, the "essence de jasmine" of the
French manufactories, is a solution of the oil, as obtained by
extraction with lard or beef suet, in strong spirit of wine. The odor of
jasmine oil is so peculiar that it is without comparison, and as such
cannot be imitated.
Juniper oil (oleum juniperi) is obtained by distillation from the fruits
of Juniperus communis, L., or juniper. The berries used for the
purpose should be fully grown and fresh and bruised before being
placed in the still. Unripe berries yield a smaller quantity and an oil
of somewhat different properties than ripe berries. The oil obtained
by distillation with steam is colorless and that by ordinary distillation
yellowish, the former having a specific gravity of 0.840 to 0.860 and
the latter of 0.850 to 0.900. It consists mainly of terpenes. By
standing, a stearoptene is separated, which crystallizes in feathery
needles from hot spirit of wine. The odor and taste of juniper oil
remind one at the same time of juniper berries and oil of turpentine.
Juniper oil has a great tendency to thicken; it becomes resinous,
acid and thickly fluid, formic acid being formed. It should be kept in
well-closed bottles, and protected from light. It is frequently
adulterated with oil of turpentine and juniper-wood oil. It may be
tested by its behavior towards alcohol, as well as by the taste. A
drop of the oil rubbed up with sugar, and shaken with 500 grammes
of water, should not impart an acrid taste to the water. Juniper oil
gives a clear solution with ½ part absolute alcohol; by a larger
quantity it is rendered turbid.
Lavender oil (oleum lavandulæ.)—Large quantities of this oil are
distilled in Southern France, in the neighborhood of Grasse and
Nimes, from the flowers of lavandula officinalis, Chaix, which grows
wild in that region. It is limpid, colorless, or yellowish, has a strong
odor and a pungent, aromatic, somewhat bitter taste. With 90 per
cent. alcohol it mixes clear in every proportion, boils at 320° F., and
has a specific gravity of 0.876 to 0.905. It turns the plane of
polarization to the left.
The best French lavender oil, distilled from pure flowers only, is
brought into commerce under the name, "Essence de Lavande
Montblanc." It is distinguished from all other kinds, in the
preparation of which more or less stems and leaves are used, by its
extremely agreeable odor.
Lavender is also extensively cultivated in Mitchan and Hitchin,
England, and used for the preparation of an especially fine oil, the
odor of which surpasses even that of the best French product. It is,
however, comparatively expensive.
From the leaves and flowers of lavandula spica the spike oil is
obtained by distillation. It is colorless, or yellow, and in odor
approaches rosemary oil more than lavender oil. Its boiling point,
like that of lavender oil, is at 366.8° F., and its specific gravity 0.96.
Spike oil turns the plane of polarization only slightly to the left, the
deviation scarcely ever exceeding 0.8°.
Lavender oils are very sensitive to light and air, they becoming
ozonized under their influence, and acquire an odor like turpentine.
Hence they must be kept in well-closed vessels in a dark place.
Oil of lavender is frequently adulterated, chiefly with alcohol, fat oils,
oil of turpentine, and spike oil. To test the oil, mix a drop of it with
10 cubic centimeters of warm water, and test the odor, which should
be pure and agreeably lavender-like. The taste of the vigorously
agitated water should be transiently bitter aromatic. One volume of
the oil should give a turbid mixture with one volume of dilute alcohol
(specific gravity 0.895), but a perfectly clear one with three volumes.
On shaking 0.5 cubic centimeter of the oil with a few grains of
rosaniline it remains uncolored, but, in the presence of even a trace
of alcohol, it acquires a red coloration. By mixing in a graduated
cylinder equal volumes of the oil and distilled water, and shaking
vigorously, the oil, after the water has settled, shows a decrease in
volume if alcohol be present. The presence of fat oil can be readily
recognized by bringing a drop of the oil to be tested upon filtering
paper; a grease stain is formed, which disappears neither at the
ordinary temperature nor by heating. Adulteration with oil of
turpentine is recognized by the boiling point, that of oil of turpentine
being 312.8° F., and that of oil of lavender, as previously stated,
366.8° F.
Spike oil should mix clear with equal parts of 90 per cent. alcohol;
the contrary would indicate adulteration with oil of turpentine.
For perfumery, lavender oil is of great importance, it being much
employed by itself, as well as mixed with other oils.
Lemon oil (oleum limonis) is obtained by various processes from the
rinds of lemons. The best and most delicately-scented oil is obtained
by the so-called sponge process in use in Southern Italy and Sicily.
The rinds are soaked from fifteen to twenty-five minutes in water, to
which sometimes a little soda is added. They are taken up singly in
the right hand and the outer surface of each is firmly pressed
against a large and rather hard-grained sponge held in the left hand
and secured by a strap. Two or three sharp turns of the wrist impart
what may be called a screw-pressure to the rind, thus effectually
fracturing the oil cells, the sponge absorbing the contents. The
sponge is constantly held over an earthen jar and occasionally
squeezed into it. The fluid in the jar quickly separates into three
different products—the dregs or deposit of mucilaginous and cellular
matter, some fruit juice, and the pure oil, which floats on the top.
The latter, when bright and clear, is passed, by means of a small
glass siphon, into the cans of thin copper, in which, after sealing, it is
stored away for export.
The above described primitive mode of fabrication furnishes the
most highly prized oils of commerce; they are called hand-pressed
oils or essences preparées a l'éponge. In the same manner are
obtained the oils from the sweet and bitter pomegranate, the
bergamotte, and mandarin orange.
Another method of expressing the oil is that of the écuelle à piquer,
much used in the region about Nice. The oils obtained by this
method, which are also of a very fine quality, are marked essence à
l'écuelle or au zeste. The apparatus consists of a round shallow pan
of copper or brass, having a receptacle for the oil at its lowest part
and a lip on one side for pouring, and studded on its concavity by
strong blunt spikes. The workman takes the fruit and rolls it gently
but quickly around the inside of the écuelle; the spikes prick the oil
sacs, whereupon the oil, running down the spikes and the concavity
of the pan, collects in the reservoir at the lowest part. The oil is
filtered and then poured into clean glass bottles, in which the
impurities are allowed to settle.
In Reggio, where especially much bergamot oil is manufactured,
sheet-metal bowl-like vessels, studded inside with sharp ribs, are
used. Six to eight fruits are placed in the vessel. A movable lid closes
the vessel, so that there is just enough space for the fruits between
the lid and the bottom of the vessel. If now the lid be revolved by
hand-or steam-power, the rinds of the fruit are torn apart, and the
oil together with the juice runs through the sieve-bottom of the
apparatus into a cylindrical vessel where it clarifies.
The third method of obtaining the oil is by expression. The grated
rind is placed in hair mats, and subjected to powerful pressure by
means of a screw or lever press.
The process of distillation is carried on as follows: The peels, which
should be from select fruit, are sprinkled with powdered salt, and a
few hours afterwards sufficient water to moisten them is poured
over them. A day or two afterwards more water is added, and the
whole is distilled until either no more oil separates or the steam, at
first purely fragrant, begins to acquire a rank and rather unpleasant
smell. The oil obtained by distillation is inferior to the others.
Fig. 20.
Lately a combination of the écuelle and distilling processes has been
introduced by Domenico Monfalcone, which has given excellent
results. It is shown in Fig. 20. F F is a hollow cylinder, of sheet-iron,
the interior surface of which is studded with a large number of small
metallic knife-points. This cylinder revolves on two axles attached to
it at diagonally opposite points. The cylinder having been half-
charged with lemons, together with a small quantity of water, is set
in motion by aid of the shafting and pulleys driven by the small
steam engine. The fruits are thereby made to come in contact with
the metallic lancets, and their whole surface gradually becomes
punctured sufficiently to rupture the cells containing the volatile oil,
which escapes. The cylinder F F has double walls, the space
between them being intended for the circulation of a current of
steam, which is admitted to heat the water and to facilitate the
extraction of the oil, while at the same time the vapors are rarefied
or aspirated by the vacuum pump L. The axles of the cylinder on
both sides are hollow; that on the side looking towards the engine is
imbedded in such a manner that steam from the boiler D may be
admitted at will, either into the double walls of the cylinder, or into
the interior of the cylinder itself, while the hollow passage in the
other axle communicates with a condensing worm, G, the outlet of
which, H, descends into a cylindrical vessel, I, intended to receive
the condensed products, consisting of water and volatile oil. When
the apparatus is first set in motion the pump L begins to produce a
vacuum during the first revolutions of the cylinder. Steam being now
cautiously admitted into the double walls of the cylinder, the water is
raised to boiling at a comparatively low temperature, and the vapors
charged with the volatile oil pass over into the receptacle, where
they separate into two layers. The product obtained by this process
is claimed to be equal in quality to that obtained by mechanical
means, and the yield nearly double.
During the months of November to March the average yield from
1000 lemons in the factories of Palermo is 320 grammes of oil; in
those of Messina, where a better quality of fruit is employed, the
yield is about 400 grammes. The same number of lemons yield
about 10 gallons of juice, the collection of which is, of course, a
necessary accompaniment of the manufacture of volatile oil.
Pure oil of lemons is almost colorless and has the odor of the fruit.
Its specific gravity varies between 0.8752 and 0.8785; it boils at
298.4° F., and is soluble in all proportions in absolute alcohol and
glacial acetic acid. It contains, according to G. Bouchardat and J.
Lafont, besides a little cymene, several hydrocarbons, the most
abundant of which is citrene, C10H16, boiling near 352.5° F., having a
rotatory power exceeding +105°, and yielding a solid optically
inactive dihydrochloride.
Oil of lemons is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine. This
may be detected, according to G. Heppe, by slowly heating the oil in
a dry test-tube with a small piece of copper butyrate to about 338°
F., taking care that the temperature does not exceed 356°F. The
copper salt will dissolve in pure oil of lemons with a green color,
while in the presence of oil of turpentine a yellow turbid mixture is
obtained, reddish-yellow cuprous oxide being separated. This test is
also applicable to oils of bergamot and of orange-peel.
Lilac oil is obtained from the flowers of Syringa vulgaris, the lilac, by
aqueous distillation and subsequent extraction with benzine. It is
also frequently prepared by the absorption process. It is used for the
most expensive perfumes, and is seldom found in commerce.
Limes, oil of (oleum limettæ), is derived from the rind of the fruit of
Citrus limetta, or lime. The oil is obtained in the same manner as oil
of lemons, which it somewhat resembles. Its mean specific gravity is
0.8734 at 84° F. The oil made by the écuelle process is of a
decidedly yellow color, varying in intensity, being darker in the fresh
product. The difference in flavor and aroma is so marked as scarcely
to require any other means of distinguishing the oil made by the
écuelle process from that obtained by distillation, the first having a
decided fragrant lemon smell, whilst the distilled oil is very inferior,
frequently possessing little more than the smell of turpentine. Large
quantities of oil of limes are manufactured in Dominica, but most of
the oil exported from there is of an inferior quality and was formerly
solely used for adulterating oil of lemons. Lately it has also been
employed for scenting soaps and in the manufacture of the common
essences and perfumes.
Licari oil, linaloë oil, is obtained, partially in Mexico and partially in
Cayenne, from the wood of the white cedar (bois de rose femelle),
Licari canali. It is limpid, has an agreeable odor, reminding one of
roses, and does not become solid at 4° F. Its specific gravity is 0.868
at 59° F., and it boils at 388.4° F.
Marjoram oils.—By distilling the leaves of Origanum marjorana, L.,
the marjoram oil (oleum marjoranæ) is obtained. It is yellowish or
green-yellowish, but becomes reddish-brown by age. If badly kept it
finally becomes thickly-fluid and sticky, sometimes depositing a
reddish stearoptene. The odor of marjoram oil is less agreeable than
that of the plant, and the taste peculiar, bitter, cooling. The oil
dissolves readily in 90 per cent. alcohol, and when mixed with equal
parts of it yields a clear solution. Its specific gravity is 0.89 to 0.91.
It should be kept in entirely filled, well-closed bottles in a shady
place. On coming in contact with air, it absorbs oxygen with avidity
and forms a white, odorless, crystalline mass.
From Origanum vulgare, L., the ordinary marjoram oil (oleum origani
vulgaris) is obtained. It is yellowish or reddish, limpid, of specific
gravity 0.90 to 0.95, and has a camphor-like odor.
Spanish marjoram (oleum origani cretici) is obtained by distillation
from the flowering plants of several varieties of marjoram (Or.
creticum, Or. hirtum, Or. smyrnæum). It is brought into commerce
from Trieste, Smyrna, Salonica, and other Mediterranean seaports.
The oil exported from France appears to be derived from another
variety of marjoram; at least it shows a different behavior and
approaches more the ordinary marjoram oil. The genuine oil is
thickly-fluid, generally yellow-brown; of specific gravity O.95 to O.97;
has a strong, aromatic odor, and produces upon the tongue a sharp
continued burning. It dissolves in equal parts of 90 per cent. alcohol.
It is chiefly adulterated with copaiba oil, the presence of which can
be recognized by the oil dissolving with greater difficulty.
The marjoram oils are but little used for perfuming purposes.
Mignonette oil (oleum résédæ). The well-known mignonette, Réséda
odoratissima, yields a thick yellowish oil, either by maceration and
absorption, or by extraction with ether or petroleum-ether. It has a
penetrating, disagreeable odor, which can only be rendered
agreeable by greatly diluting the oil. In gathering the flowers care
must be had not to mix them with leaves, as this spoils the odor of
the oil.
Myrrh oil (oleum myrthæ) is obtained from the leaves of Myrtus
communis, L. It is yellowish, dextrorotatory, of specific gravity 0.910
at 60.8° F., and commences to boil at 320° F. As its principal
constituents, Jahns has established a terpene (C10H16), boiling at
from 316.4° to 320° F., and turning the plane of polarization to the
right, and cineol (C10H16O), which boils at 348.8° F. Besides these
principal constituents there seems to be present a very small
quantity of a camphor, corresponding very likely to the formula
C10H16O. Myrtol, which was formerly supposed to exist in myrtle oil,
has been found to be a mixture of the dextrorotatory terpene and of
cineol.
Nutmeg oils.—From mace, the fresh aril of the nutmeg (Myristica
fragrans, Houtt, natural order Myristicaceæ), mace oil (oleum
macidis), is obtained by distillation. It is straw-yellow or yellowish,
later on yellow-reddish, clear, somewhat thickly-fluid, of a strong
odor resembling that of mace, and a taste at first mild, but later on
pungent and aromatic. It mixes clear in every proportion with
absolute alcohol, but of 90 per cent. alcohol, 5 to 6 volumes are
required for a clear solution. The specific gravity of the oil varies
from 0.87 to 0.92. With iodine it detonates, vapors being emitted.
The oil obtained from dried mace has a less agreeable odor.
The oil is frequently adulterated with tincture of nutmeg prepared
with absolute alcohol. Such an adulteration, as well as any content
of alcohol, is recognized by shaking 0.5 cubic centimeter of the oil
with a grain of rosaniline. In the presence of alcohol the oil acquires
a red coloration, while pure oil remains uncolored.
From the nutmegs, the seed of Myristica fragrans, freed from the
seed-coat and aril, a volatile oil (oleum nucistæ æthereum) is also
obtained by distillation. It is generally yellowish, seldom colorless,
somewhat thickly-fluid and has the odor and taste of nutmegs. It is
readily soluble in alcohol and ether and of specific gravity, 0.93 to
0.95. It consists of two oils, one specifically lighter and fluid, and the
other heavy and crystalline. On standing it deposits a stearoptene,
called myristicin.
The nutmeg oils are but seldom used in perfumery.

Opopanax oil is obtained from opopanax.[7] It is of gold-yellow color

and an agreeable balsamic odor reminding one somewhat of myrrh.
Its specific gravity is 0.9016, and it boils between 392° and 572° F.
On account of its strength, the oil must be very carefully handled in
perfuming, but if used in the correct proportion it is very
advantageous.
Orange-peel oil, also called Portugal oil or essence of Portugal, is
obtained in Italy from the fresh peels of the orange, the fruit of
Citrus vulgaris, Risso. It is prepared in a manner similar to that of oil
of lemons (which see). In commerce a distinction is made between
the Messina oil, which is of inferior quality, and the Calabria oil,
which is of a better quality. The Messina oil has a yellow color,
frequently not much darker than that of oil of lemons, while the
color of Calabria oil is dark yellow, nearly brown. The oil prepared
from the peels of the bitter orange (Citrus bigaradia, Duhamel), is of
the same color as the sweet Messina oil. It is more used in the
preparation of liqueurs than for perfuming. Orange-peel oils are
limpid and have a specific gravity of 0.819 to 0.9. One part of
orange-peel oil should, according to its age, dissolve clear in 5 to 10
parts of 90 per cent. alcohol.
Very similar to orange-peel oil, though differing somewhat in odor, is
the mandarin oil obtained from the fresh peels of the mandarin
orange, the fruit of Citrus sinensis. It is brought into commerce from
Reggio and is said to form a constituent of the genuine ess-bouquet.
It has a specific gravity of 0.852 at 50° F. and is dextrorotatory.
While from the peels the volatile oil is but seldom obtained by
distillation, this process is exclusively used for gaining volatile oils
from the flowers, leaves, and young branches. In this connection
two kinds of volatile oil have chiefly to be considered, viz: orange-
flower oil and petit-grain oil.
Orange-flower oil or neroli oil (oleum florum aurantii; ol. neroli; ol.
naphæ) is obtained by distillation from the flowers of the bitter
orange; while the flowers of the sweet orange yield the so-called
neroli-Portugal oil, which is far inferior to the other.
On the French Riviera, the orange is especially cultivated for
obtaining blossoms and leaves for distilling purposes. At Cannes, Le
Cannet, Golfe-Juan, Vallauris, Biot, Vence, Le Bar, Antibes, Le Cap,
Nice, and Mentone, the bitter orange, whose flowers are very
numerous and especially suitable for perfumery, is chiefly cultivated.
Cannes and Le Cannet alone possess 150,000 to 160,000 such trees,
and Golfe-Juan and Vallauris 200,000. The flowers harvested in
Golfe-Juan amount to about 700,000 lbs., in Le Cannet to about
330,000 lbs., at Cannes to about 130,000 lbs., and in Antibes,
Mentone, and Nice to about 260,000 lbs. One orange tree yields,
according to its age, from 2 to 17 lbs. of flowers. The distillation of
neroli oil has also been lately commenced in Sicily and Calabria, but
as far as quality is concerned, the oil thus far brought into commerce
cannot compete with the French oil.
Oil of orange flowers is at first nearly colorless or straw-yellow, but
becomes reddish-yellow when kept for some time. In a clear glass it
opalizes bluish. It is limpid and has a slightly bitter taste and a
strong but very delicious odor. Its specific gravity varies between
0.85 and 0.90. It is but sparingly soluble in water, but imparts to the
latter an agreeable odor; the solution is colored red by sulphuric
acid. With 1 to 2 parts of 90 per cent. alcohol, the oil gives a clear
solution which becomes turbid by a further addition of alcohol and,
after standing quietly, a flaky separation of stearoptene is observed.
If not carefully kept the oil becomes darker and even acquires a
disagreeable odor. By rectification with water oil thus spoiled can be
restored. With sodium the oil does not evolve hydrogen gas; it
detonates with iodine.
Of the various oils of orange blossoms occurring in commerce "Neroli
petale" is the best.
Neroli oil being a very expensive oil is exposed to many
adulterations. Mierzinski even asserts that no genuine unadulterated
neroli oil occurs in commerce, because it is a well-known fact that
what is sold as genuine, pure neroli oil, consists on an average of
4/8 genuine neroli oil, 1/8 oil of bergamot, and 3/8 petit-grain oil.
Furthermore, it is no secret that besides the flowers of all kinds of
Aurantiaceæ, unripe fruits or fresh peels of ripe fruits and even
young shoots of the branches and leaves are subjected to
distillation. This assertion perhaps goes too far, but nevertheless it is
advisable to procure the oil only from a thoroughly reliable firm.
A very frequent adulteration consists in an addition of petit-grain oil.
Such an addition can only be recognized by the taste and odor. For
this purpose add to 3 drops of oil in a small bottle 10 grammes of
distilled water, and, after shaking vigorously, test as to the odor and
taste. According to Chevalier, pour 1 or 2 drops of the oil upon sugar
and stir the latter in water; if the oil is not genuine the water
acquires a bitter taste. Hager recommends the following test: Mix 3
drops of the oil in a test-tube with 40 to 50 drops of alcohol; add,
after complete solution, about ⅓ the volume of the solution of
concentrated sulphuric acid, and effect mixture by careful shaking.
Pure oil gives a turbid, reddish, dark-brown mixture (with old oil,
dark brown); almost all other oils, which may be substituted, give
paler-colored (reddish, red, or ocher-color) mixtures; or, in case the
genuine oil is adulterated with non-genuine, the mixture exhibits a
considerably less dark-color. When this test has been several times
executed with genuine oil, no room for doubt is left. If the mixture
be diluted with four times its volume of water, it becomes yellowish
and milky.
The odor of orange flowers is, according to Soubeiran, due to two
volatile oils, of which the one having the most delicious odor is
soluble in water. The other volatile oil, of which the neroli oil of
commerce chiefly consists, is sparingly soluble in water, and does
not possess such a delicious odor. This is the reason why good
orange-flower water cannot be prepared by saturating water with
neroli oil. The genuine orange-flower water is obtained as a by-
product in distilling the oil.
Neroli oil is much used for the finer perfumes, it being especially a
necessary constituent of eau de Cologne. It has to be carefully
protected from air and light. For perfuming purposes it is only
sufficiently ripe after having been stored for at least one year. If,
however, it becomes too old, it inclines towards rancidity, which may
be prevented by compounding it with an equal volume of fine spirit.
Portugal oil being of inferior quality can only be used for lower grade
products.
Petit grain oil (oleum petit grain) is obtained by distillation from the
leaves, young shoots and unripe fruits of different Aurantiaceæ. The
best oil is that distilled from the leaves of the bitter orange, it
possessing an odor similar to that of neroli oil, but, of course, not so
fine. Southern France was formerly the chief place for the production
of this oil, but considerable quantities of it are now manufactured in
Paraguay, and the oil at present brought from there into commerce
being of quite a good quality and considerably cheaper than the
French oil, has almost entirely supplanted the latter.
Orris root, oil of (oleum iridis), is obtained by distillation with steam
from the rhizomes of Iris florentina, which is cultivated in Southern
France, Dalmatia, and other regions. It has a yellow color and, at an
ordinary temperature, a quite solid consistency like butter or wax, so
that it can be rendered fluid only by heating. It consists chiefly of a
rigid odorless body to which the liquid odoriferous oil adheres. The
solid portion was formerly designated orris-stearoptene; according to
Flueckiger it is, however, myristic acid.
Oil of orris root is one of the oils which keep for years without
suffering injury. It is recommended to keep it in stock in alcoholic
solution so that the myristic acid contained in it may to a certain
degree be etherized, and cannot injuriously affect the odoriferous
principle.
Oil of orris root serves as a substitute and for strengthening the
natural odor of violets. It can, however, be employed only for very
fine expensive perfumery since, on account of the very slight yield
from the root (from 1000 parts ½ to ¾ part of oil), its price is very
high, generally exceeding that of rose oil.
An admixture of other volatile oils of less value would render the oil
fluid at the ordinary temperature.
Patchouli oil.—By the name of patchouli are known, according to L.
Wray, Jr., the leaves of Pogostemon patchouli, Pellet, natural order
Labiatæ, indigenous to the East Indies, and known and used for
centuries in the various regions of China, Assam, and the Malayan
Islands. Most of the patchouli comes from the East Indies. Before
exportation it is sorted into three qualities: 1. Selected, consisting of
leaves only. 2. Mixed, leaves with slight peduncles and few stems. 3.
Stalky leaves. The best quality occurs seldom in commerce since the
picking of the leaves does not cover the expense.
According to Wray, the leaves are intentionally mixed with those of
the ruku (ocimum basilicum, L.), an herb indigenous to the Malayan
Islands. The leaves of the latter are broader than those of
pogostemon patchouli, and the stalks thinner and round. Seed-
capsules are also frequently found among the leaves, though
patchouli seldom flowers and bears seeds.
In Europe, patchouli has been an article of commerce since 1841. In
the Orient it is highly esteemed as a perfume. The Arabs even
ascribe remedial properties to it, and it is customary with them to fill
their pillows with the leaves to protect them from infection and
prolong their lives.
The peculiar, penetrating, though not exactly agreeable, odor of
patchouli leaves, is due to a volatile oil, of which they contain 1.5 to
2 per cent. In the Orient this oil has for many years been obtained
by distillation.
In the Penang market two kinds of oil, one green and the other
gold-brown, are distinguished. Though both are sold at the same
price, there is a greater demand for the green oil. According to the
statements of the distillers, the brown oil is derived from the leaves
of old plants and the green oil from the leaves of young plants. It
would seem, however, that the color is dependent on the soil upon
which the plants are grown, as well as upon atmospheric influences.
When ruku is distilled with patchouli leaves, the oil is yellow and
thickly-fluid.
In Germany, the oil is now distilled from imported leaves. It is
thickly-fluid, of a brown color, and, in an undiluted state, possesses a
disagreeable, almost musty odor. However, when sufficiently diluted
and suitably mixed with other volatile oils, the odor is far more
agreeable, and for this reason it has for some time played an
important part in the manufacture of perfumery. It has the
advantage of being very yielding and lasting, but, on the other hand,
possesses the disadvantage of not combining with other perfumes,
so that its odor is always perceptible. It should always be used in
very small quantities or much diluted.
In commerce Penang oil and French oil are distinguished, the first
having a specific gravity of 0.959 and the latter of 1.012. When kept
for any length of time the oil deposits patchouli-camphor (C15H28O)
in prismatic crystals of 1.045 specific gravity and melting at 127 to
129° F. These crystals have a peculiar, very lasting odor.
Patchouli oil is soluble in equal parts of 90 per cent. alcohol, the
contrary indicating that it is not pure. It is chiefly adulterated with
cedar oil.
Peppermint oil.—The Mentha family furnishes commerce with three
oils differing essentially from each other—oil of curled mint,
peppermint oil, and poley oil.
Oil of curled mint (oleum menthæ crispæ) is separated by distillation
with water from the leaves of Mentha crispa, Linn. It is limpid,
yellowish, sometimes greenish; in time it becomes darker and more
thickly-fluid. Its specific gravity varies between 0.890 and 0.965. It
has a strong odor of curled mint and a pungent, somewhat cooling,
slightly bitterish taste. It is soluble in all proportions in 90 per cent.
alcohol. In commerce a distinction is made between German and
American oil of curled mint, the latter generally containing oil of
turpentine and oil of sassafras. Odor, taste, and the alcohol test
suffice for the determination of the quality of the oil.
Oil of curled mint contains a terpene, C10H16, and a body isomeric
with carvol, the carvol of curled mint, C10H14O. Its specific gravity,
boiling point and chemical properties are the same as those of the
carvol of caraway oil, but it differs from it by its odor and turning the
plane of polarization to the opposite direction. In conjunction with
other volatile oils, oil of curley mint is sometimes used for perfuming
soaps.
Peppermint oil (oleum menthæ piperitæ) is obtained from the fresh
flowering peppermint, Mentha piperita, natural order Labiatæ. In
commerce, German, English, American and Japanese peppermint
oils are distinguished. As regards fineness, the German oil is inferior
to the English and better kinds of American oils, but superior to the
Japanese. The best and most expensive oil is the English so-called
"Mitcham oil of peppermint," which dissolves in 50 parts of 50 per
cent. spirit of wine and possesses a fine, pure taste, it being for this
reason preferred by distillers for the fabrication of liqueurs. For
perfuming purposes, however, the American as well as the German
oils are very suitable. Of American oils that of H. G. Hotchkiss, L. B.
Hotchkiss, Hale & Parshall, and Fritzsche Bros. enjoy a high
reputation. The Japanese oil is distinguished from the rest by a
peculiar train-oil-like odor and taste, and is in but little demand.
Crude oil of peppermint is yellowish to greenish and contains much
mucus; it has therefore to be subjected to another distillation with
water. The rectified oil is clear as water, limpid, of a strong but
pleasant odor and a specific gravity of 0.900 to 0.902. Old oil
thickens and then shows an acid reaction. The greater portion of the
oil congeals at the freezing point of water; many kinds, however,
requiring but slight cooling in order to become solid. The solid
portion of the oil, Menthol, (C10H12,H2O) is a colorless, finely
crystallized body with an intense odor of peppermint. It melts at
107.6° F., is quite fluid at an ordinary temperature and boils at
413.6° F. Menthol is found in all oils of peppermint most abundantly
in the Japanese oil, which contains from 50 to 55 per cent. of it.
Mitcham oil is also very rich in menthol, it containing from 40 to 45
per cent., while the American oil contains only from 20 to 25 per
cent.
American, German and English oils of peppermint may be
distinguished as follows: By adding to 5 or 6 drops of the oil, 25 to
30 drops of pure white concentrated sulphuric acid, American oil of
peppermint becomes heated and emits vapors, the mixture acquiring
a dark brownish red coloration. After mixing with 8 to 10 cubic
centimeters of 90 per cent. alcohol, the fluid becomes turbid, pale
yellowish brown, or reddish brown, and on boiling clear pale brown.
When mixed with sulphuric acid, German oil of peppermint becomes
heated without emitting vapors, becomes yellowish red, not very
dark, and turbid. After diluting with alcohol, the fluid becomes turbid
and yellowish red, and on boiling somewhat more transparent and
currant-red. English oil of peppermint treated in the same manner as
the others with sulphuric acid becomes very slightly heated without
any emission of vapor. After diluting with alcohol, it becomes clear
and raspberry red.
As adulterants of peppermint oil are mentioned: fat oils, alcohol, oil
of turpentine, copaiba oil, mustard oil, and ginger oil. The most
frequent adulteration is an admixture of oil of turpentine. It is
recognized by the oil not dissolving clear in equal parts of 90 per
cent. alcohol, as is the case with the pure product. To detect the
presence of copaiba oil, mix 5 drops of the oil to be tested with 15
to 20 drops of fuming nitric acid, shake and allow it to stand for 1 to
2 hours. After this time the oily portion should be neither entirely nor
partially congealed, but remain fluid. To detect traces of mustard oil,
bring 10 drops of the oil into a wide reagent glass, then add 3 to 4
cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol, 2 to 3 drops of silver nitrate
solution and 12 to 15 drops of ammonia. The mixture is clear and
colorless, and remains so on heating to boiling. In the presence of
mustard oil turbidity and blackening take place in consequence of