high stakes, this eliminates the possibility that a single user or a small number of

users might profit from the system. PoS benefits energy efficiency since it does not

require block generators to perform computationally intensive tasks. Similarly,

PoS allows users to participate in block-building even with less capable computer

hardware. However, with cryptocurrencies, stakes must be created beforehand by

some other method, as Proof of Stake determines the block sequence according to

the wealth of network maintainers. These stakes can be bought from other users

who have previously acquired stakes or produced in a PoW-based system before

transitioning to a PoS system.

Table 4. Comparison of consensus mechanisms used in public blockchain.

Consensus mechanisms Degree of decentralization Scalability Randomness in miner

selection

PoW High Low High

Byzantine consensus

PoS Medium High Medium

Byzantine consensus

• Consensus processes are used in public blockchains

Public blockchains provide the foundation for most cryptocurrency-based systems,

such as Litecoin, Ethereum, and Bitcoin. Anyone with an Internet connection can

update these public, decentralized, permissionless computer systems known as

blockchains[42]. Anyone with such access can trade digital assets on these platforms.

Users are urged to contribute to the networks by verifying transactions to earn digital

tokens that can be used for trading commodities or in a shared market.

Because public blockchains are "trustless," users can remain anonymous on the chain to

protect their identity and feel safe knowing that their transactions are carried out honestly

without having to build a relationship of trust with any parties or middlemen[43].

This is why users find public blockchains appealing.

The most popular public blockchains are made to be append-only logs of transactions

that are continuously confirmed and reconciled. After being verified by most network
maintainers, a sequence of transactions is collected into a structured block and successfully

mined. Because of this, the most recent block that has been mined is connected

to the previous block in the series to preserve a coherent and consistent transaction

history.

Public blockchains must ensure that the shared ledger of transactions constantly

provides the same image to whoever sees the chain at a given moment to prevent large

quantities of trades in digital assets. Therefore, public blockchains typically use the

most effective ways to reach consensus in highly decentralized worldwide networks.

As a result, transactions entered into public ledgers are transparent and unchangeable.

3.4.6. Smart Contract

A smart contract is a program stored on the blockchain with ordinary transactions

and executes its terms automatically if trustworthy intermediaries are not present. This

has ushered in a new era for blockchain technology and profoundly altered the blockchain

landscape. Smart contracts, the cornerstone of the blockchain, open up a world of possiVersion

December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 26 of 53

bilities for supply chains, healthcare, digital identity, the Internet of Things, and business

process management [51]. The ultimate objectives of smart contracts are to do away with

trusted intermediaries, minimize human interaction, lower the cost of enforcement, and

guard against security threats and purposeful or accidental fraud.

Self-executing "smart contracts" kept up to date on a hosted blockchain allow agreements

and connections to be codified and trusted [52]. Smart contracts facilitate automated

transactions, eliminating the need for external financial institutions like banks, courts, or

notaries to oversee them. This can contribute to the maintenance of dependable and secure

company operations. These transactions are observable, traceable, and irreversible.

Formal verification is necessary to show that a contract code is correct for each input

in its state space and that the contract functions as intended. The application of proof and

verification in other conventional sectors has been limited due to the significant cost and

labor involved. Therefore, traditional methods are essential for smart contract verification.

On open blockchains, smart contracts are accessible from anywhere in the world [53].
Moreover, many smart contracts are immutable, which means that although they can

be updated on some platforms, they are not easily fixable if a flaw or vulnerability later

surfaced.

Lastly, many smart contracts require expensive resources to run and store data [54].

This makes them very desirable targets for malicious individuals to assault. Therefore,

formal verification is a helpful tactic that can reduce the likelihood of mistakes and defects

in a contract and help ward off future hostile attacks.

3.4.7. Network Security and Attacks

Blockchain maintains a decentralized distributed ledger that does away with the

requirement for trustworthy intermediaries in transactional processes. A blockchain ledger

comprises a series of blocks (see Figure 7), each linked to the one before it by a cryptographic

hash [55]. Every block in a blockchain consists of two parts: the body and the

genesis block. Blockchain maintains the ledger’s immutability and state through a decentralized

consensus process. Blockchain technology provides an immutable, distributed, and

decentralized ledger. Every time a new block or transaction is generated on a peer-to-peer

(P2P) network, blockchain technology spreads the logger around the web. Each transaction

has a distinct, verifiable record in a ledger [56]. The popularity of Bitcoin has increased

interest in blockchain research. Turing’s full implementation of language-based smart

contracts was essential to advancing blockchain technology.

Blockchain technology is gaining traction in several industries. When financial assets

are involved, security issues arise mainly from the possibility of asset theft or hacker

compromise of the system. Blockchain technology should improve data integrity, address

security vulnerabilities, and make transactions decentralized, transparent, and irreversible.

Thus, security is crucial to ensuring blockchain adoption. Blockchain systems are thought to

be less susceptible due to their immutable records, decentralized consensus, and encryption.

• Security Risks

Technology is much sought after because it makes life simpler, but it’s crucial to be

aware of the security risks that the internet poses. The four most serious security flaws

in blockchain systems: double-spending, Sybil, 51 percent attack, and DDoS assault

1. Sybil assault

When an attacker takes on many identities at once, it’s referred to as a Sybil

assault. One of the primary issues with P2P network connections is this. It

manipulates and exerts influence over the whole network by using several false

identities. When seen in isolation, these several personas seem like ordinary

individuals, but in the background, an individual identified only as the "unknown

attacker" is in command of all these made-up companies at the same time.

The whole network is targeted by the Sybil assault. In this way, one might try

to prevent data from being delivered or received by the network. Increasing

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 27 of 53

Figure 7. A blockchain ledger series of blocks

the cost of obtaining an identity is the only way to decrease Sybil’s attacks [57].

In order to keep new users from joining the network and creating legitimate

identities, this expenditure needs to be balanced. It should also be high enough

to incur expenses in the process of creating many identities. For example, the

miner nodes handle the validation and verification process of PoW blockchains,

which need a lot of computing power. The Sybil attack is challenging due to the

associated computing power cost.

2. Double-spending

Double-spending is a sort of data consistency attack when the same digital money

(or digital asset) is spent twice. Double-spending is a strategy used to deceive

someone about the status of a transaction. The 51 percent attack is primarily

cited as the reason for double-spending [58].

3. 51 percent of assaults

A 51 percent assault is an effort by a group of miners who control more than 50

percent of the network’s mining hash rate or processing power to undermine

a blockchain, which is presently not possible [57]. The attackers may prevent

data transfer between users and Internet of Things devices by preventing new
transactions from getting confirmations. If the attackers were in charge of the

network, they could also undo completed transactions.

4. DDoS

When an attacker overwhelms the network with numerous requests in a single

effort, it’s known as a DDoS attack, which prevents users from accessing the

network’s resources. A denial-of-service attack occurs when all of these requests

originate from the same source. A denial-of-service attack, on the other hand,

originates from several sources of requests. In this case, it is difficult to defend

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 28 of 53

against these sorts of attacks since we have to first discern between legitimate

and malicious requests.

4. Discussion

4.1. IoT and Cloud Security Challenges

There is a strong interconnection between the IoT and cloud computing, as each

technology is considered supportive and complementary to the other technology. The IoT

provides the ability to collect data from multiple devices and thus the ability to analyze

big data, while cloud computing provides vast resources to store, process, manage data

and improve the security of this data. Recently, these technologies are being relied upon

within the technological landscape in order to develop decision-making processes, improve

operations, and enable competition in various institutions [59].

For successful integration of cloud and IoT, various issues must be addressed to ensure

benefits for the wider population. While the fusion of Cloud and IoT opens up numerous

opportunities and possibilities, it also presents an expanded target for potential attackers.

The integration involves diverse data types and services supported by multiple networks,

necessitating a flexible network structure capable of supporting a wide array of data and

fulfilling quality of service requirements [28]. Addressing security concerns is paramount

to prevent unauthorized access to user data. The amalgamation of IoT with cloud computing

introduces a multitude of intricate security challenges [28]. A major concern revolves

around the substantial volume of data generated by IoT devices, leading to vulnerabilities
in data privacy and security [28]. Securing and efficiently managing sensitive information

face challenges due to the sheer volume and diversity of data transmitted from various IoT

endpoints. This scenario often leads to concerns related to data encryption, authentication,

and access control. Moreover, with the increasing interconnectivity between IoT devices

and the cloud, the risk of cyber-attacks, including data breaches, becomes a looming threat.

Vulnerabilities in communication protocols and network infrastructure can be exploited by

malicious actors to intercept, manipulate, or compromise data transmission, raising significant

security risks [28]. Furthermore, the inherent resource constraints in IoT devices create

challenges in implementing robust security measures due to limited computational power

and memory [28]. As the integration progresses, ensuring the compatibility and interoperability

of security mechanisms across diverse IoT devices, cloud platforms, and services

becomes a critical challenge. To tackle these security challenges, comprehensive strategies

are needed, which include implementing data encryption, robust authentication methods,

secure communication protocols, and regularly updating security measures. These actions

aim to strengthen the integrity and confidentiality of data transmitted between IoT devices

and the cloud. In this section, we will explore the issues related to the integration of cloud

computing and IoT, drawing insights from recent literature reviews.

4.1.1. Quality of Service

Managing QoS becomes a significant concern when handling increasing data volumes

and evolving data characteristics. As specific types and quantities of data are reached,

triggers may be activated. Metrics such as bandwidth, delay, and packet loss ratio play

pivotal roles in assessing the quality of service, highlighting the essential need for QoS

support [4].

4.1.2. Identity management

Each node communicating over the Internet necessitates a unique identifier. As objects

integrate into the IoT, they also require distinctive identification numbers. Moreover,

mobile devices like sensor nodes on vehicles and various objects must possess the ability to

self-identify within the emerging network. A practical approach to achieving this objective

involves assigning IPv6 addresses. This is a viable solution as IPv6 addresses are considered
adequate even for extensive ubiquitous networking scenarios [4].

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 29 of 53

4.1.3. Data Security

Data security stands out as a prominent among the top ten security challenges projected

for 2020 [4]. Information held by government agencies, users, companies, banks, and

other institutions often contains customers’ personal details. To handle, collect, and use

this information, institutions must comply with regional general information protection

and security laws. Data security focuses on limiting access and permitting authenticated

users to access, modify, and contribute to the data. Some papers we reviewed presumed

that US authorities could potentially access and monitor user information. Therefore, for

ensuring the security of sensitive or private data, the virtual storage server must ideally be

located within the user’s country or within a trusted geographical area.

4.1.4. Supported protocol

Various protocols will be utilized to connect diverse devices to the Internet. However,

the gateway device will support certain protocols while not accommodating all of them. In

a scenario where various devices are being interconnected to the Internet, the utilization

of diverse protocols is expected to enable these devices to communicate effectively within

the network. The presence of multiple protocols signifies the need for a central hub or

gateway device, acting as an intermediary between the devices and the broader Internet

infrastructure [4]. This gateway device, although versatile, might not support every available

protocol due to technological limitations or strategic design choices. Therefore, it will

be configured to handle a specific set of protocols, ensuring compatibility and seamless

communication among a range of devices while disregarding those protocols it does not

support. This approach might necessitate compatibility checks and adjustments during the

network setup to accommodate the gateway’s protocol limitations, ensuring that devices

communicate efficiently within the network and gain access to the Internet, albeit through

a subset of supported protocols [4]. The selection of which protocols the gateway supports

might be influenced by factors like security, efficiency, and compatibility with the intended

devices, forming a critical component in enabling cohesive connectivity while balancing

sensor that is being used, so it is all up to the gateway. Users would prefer a cheaper or

more readily available sensor [4]. Consequently, there is no assurance that a newly added

sensor will be configured successfully. To address this issue, standardized protocols may be

mapped into the gateway as a solution. Among the standardized protocols that are often

considered essential for gateway support are:

• MQTT: Widely used in IoT scenarios, MQTT is a lightweight messaging protocol ideal

for resource-constrained devices. It’s known for its efficiency in transmitting data

between devices and is highly scalable, making it suitable for various IoT applications

[13].

• HTTP/HTTPS: These protocols are fundamental for web-based communication and

data transfer. While HTTP facilitates communication between devices and servers,

HTTPS adds a layer of security through encryption, ensuring data integrity and

confidentiality [13].

• CoAP: Designed for constrained devices in low-power, low-bandwidth environments,

CoAP is used for machine-to-machine communication in IoT networks. It operates

similarly to HTTP but is more suited for resource-constrained devices [13].

• TCP/IP: As the backbone of the Internet, TCP/IP enables devices to communicate and

exchange data across networks. The gateway must support this suite of protocols for

effective communication with various devices and systems connected to the Internet

[13].

• UDP: Often used for real-time communication and streaming applications, UDP

offers faster data transmission compared to TCP but lacks built-in error-checking

mechanisms. It might be necessary for specific applications or devices within the IoT

ecosystem [13].

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 30 of 53

The inclusion of these standardized protocols within the gateway device enhances its ability

to communicate with a wide range of sensors and devices, ensuring a higher probability of

successful configuration and integration of newly added sensors into the network [13]. By
mapping these protocols into the gateway, it becomes more adaptable to diverse devices

utilizing different communication standards, thereby addressing compatibility issues and

fostering a more flexible and efficient IoT ecosystem.

4.1.5. Resource allocation

Allocating resources within a cloud environment becomes challenging when various

and unforeseen IoT entities request resources. The difficulty lies in predicting the specific

resource requirements of an entity or IoT. Resource allocation should consider factors such

as the type, quantity, and frequency of data generated by the sensor, as well as its intended

usage [4]. Furthermore, disparate resource locations can complicate the monitoring and

rectification of technical faults.

4.1.6. Big Data

In the upcoming years, the substantial surge in data will pose a significant challenge for

cloud service providers. Managing this vast amount of data will hinder the ability to offer

rapid and secure access, subsequently leading to increased latency in data transmission.

4.1.7. Energy consumption

As sensor networks proliferate globally and cloud connectivity expands, the escalated

communication of data will result in a substantial power consumption increase. Envisioning

a world where billions of sensors and low-power devices operate collectively raises

challenges. A requisite for such an environment involves an efficient energy utilization

system and a consistent energy supply [4]. Furthermore, sensors would need to harness

power from the environment to generate their required energy, establishing a need for

self-sustaining power generation systems.

4.1.8. Computational performance

Addressing these challenges has led to a critical dependence on cloud service providers.

However, the scalability of the cloud to handle workloads also renders it vulnerable

to attacks that deplete resources once operations commence. Instances of such attacks

encompass exploiting vulnerabilities in application communication and overwhelming

protocols through excessive volume, as detailed in the source [4]. In these attacks, traffic

nodes are produced by exploiting a compromised node within the system. By attempting
to deactivate the network, the energy of this node is drained, confining the attack to the

transport protocol layer.

4.2. IoT Security Challenges

• Device Vulnerabilities

Internet of Things devices contain many weaknesses, the most notable of which is

weak authentication as a result of devices relying on default or weak passwords,

thus allowing unauthorized persons to access user data. Therefore, it is necessary to

provide strong authentication mechanisms. Internet of Things devices also suffer from

a lack of encryption, which can expose devices to many security threats as a result of

their communication and transfer of data across networks. Finally, Internet of Things

devices suffer from firmware vulnerabilities because Internet of Things resources

impose restrictions to prevent updating the firmware, and thus this firmware can be

exposed to several security vulnerabilities that an attacker can exploit[60].

• Data Privacy Concerns

There are concerns related to data privacy, as Internet of Things devices collect data

from several sources, thus allowing attackers to listen to conversations that contain

user identification data or sensitive data. In addition, Internet of Things devices can

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 31 of 53

contain sensitive data while being transferred or stored within the network, and thus

the network can be exposed to a hack, causing sensitive data to be leaked and easily

accessed[61].

• Lack of Standardization

Lack of standardization can cause problems with limited compatibility and interoperability

between IoT devices and thus the inability to implement all functions. If IoT

platforms and devices do not use the same protocols, it is not possible for them to

work together, thus creating security risks, reduced efficiency, and increased costs.

• Physical Security

Internet of Things devices can be exposed to actual physical access, causing unauthorized

access to data and attempts to manipulate it. Therefore, it is necessary to

applying tamper-evident mechanisms, and finally tampering must be used. -resistant

hardware[62].

4.3. Cloud Security Challenges

• Data Breaches

Data breaches are considered the most prominent challenges facing cloud computing

that compromise data security and are caused by weak passwords, malware, and

internal threats that give unauthorized users access to data. Cloud computing can

be exposed to several security violations, such as hijacking of accounts, which causes

data tampering and loss [63].

• Identity and Access Management (IAM)

The challenges are that the server is exposed to request forgery by an attacker who

exploits security vulnerabilities and then controls access management. In addition,

cloud environments can be exposed to misconfigurations that cause unauthorized

access to cloud systems. The lack of authentication mechanisms in computing systems

poses risks in managing the identity of the user authorized to access the cloud[64].

• Compliance and Regulations

Cloud services are unable to comply with all data protection standards when using

multiple hybrid networks, and this complexity can be addressed by integrating a dedicated

cloud security management solution. On the other hand, dealing with multiple

cloud services makes it difficult to comply with information security standards due

to the distribution of roles to several people and thus the presence of many decisions

and changes, in addition to the huge volume of stored data that opens the way for

many electronic attacks. Therefore, it is necessary to update compliance standards

according to the requirements and size of companies.

• Shared Responsibility Model

The shared responsibility model aims to define the limits of responsibility between

cloud service providers and users, as there are some gaps and misconceptions, the

most notable of which are:

information data, but are only responsible for some of the lower layers in the

architecture.

– Customers believe that their sensitive data, once stored on a major cloud provider,

will be secure, but the service provider offers a set of tools and services that help

secure the data (encryption, authentication, etc.) and the user must specify the

security elements he wishes to implement.

4.4. Integration Challenges

• IoT-Cloud Integration Security

Security challenges include the possibility of unauthorized access to sensitive user

data during its transfer from IoT devices to cloud computing, in addition to the

possibility of data leakage due to the inability to implement encryption for all layers

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 32 of 53

of the system. Finally, weak authentication can cause systems to be exposed to many

security violations and access to and manipulation of user data [65].

• Interoperability

The difference between IoT devices and computing systems in terms of using different

protocols leads to incompatibility between them and thus difficulty communicating

smoothly. As a result, there is a limitation in the services that can be implemented, a

decrease in work efficiency, in addition to an increase in costs.

4.5. Security Best Practices and Solutions

• Encryption and Authentication

Strong authentication methods help secure IoT devices and cloud services, as it is

necessary to use biometrics and certificates in order to verify the identity of devices

and users and thus prevent unauthorized access. On the other hand, it is necessary to

implement encryption methods for data when transferring it between devices and the

cloud in order to obtain secure data that cannot be [66].

• Security Patching and Updates

Conducting regular updates and patch management helps address security vulnerabilities
found in IoT platforms and cloud computing services. The cloud can distribute

secure updates to all applications, so no attacker can exploit security vulnerabilities to

penetrate the network [66].

• Monitoring and Incident Response

Monitoring the IoT system helps detect any anomalies or potential security violations,

so it is necessary to use behavioral analysis tools and analyze network data traffic

in order to be alerted to any intrusive or malicious cases in order to report them.

On the other hand, security risks must be responded to in real time by preparing

communication strategies and implementing security protocols in order to mitigate

potential risks [66].

4.6. Future Trends and Mitigation Strategies

• Emerging Technologies Blockchain technology is considered one of the technological

developments that helps improve IoT and cloud security, as it helps monitor data

collected from several sources and then share it in a safe and reliable manner as a result

of encrypting all data. This technology also relies on distributed ledger technology,

which stores all encrypted data, in addition to the ease of transferring data without the

need for a third party, which helps enhance the Internet of Things and cloud security.

• Regulatory Developments Regulatory developments facing the Internet of Things

include hardware and mobility requirements, in addition to technical standardization,

and network numbering and addressing mechanisms. These developments can have

an impact on data security and hence the need to develop security standards for IoT

and cloud environments.

4.7. Blockchain Adoption to Secure IoT and Cloud Integration

The model proposed in this study aims to improve the security of integrating both

technologies. It involves a network of Blockchain, transaction, and mining nodes strategically

positioned across user premises and within the cloud [9]. These nodes encompass

various systems, including enterprise servers, standalone PCs, and smart devices, acting

as integral components. The Blockchain clients, which represent IoT devices with limited

resources, communicate with cloud-based Blockchain transaction nodes using Representational

the transaction nodes, which, in turn, process this information.

To ensure security, smart devices are furnished with private keys for data signing.

The signed data is subsequently sent to the transaction nodes for processing upstream.

To ensure secure data communication, a mutual trust agreement is established between

the IoT device and the transaction node. Techniques such as whitelisting and two-way

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 33 of 53

authentication might be employed for a secure one-to-one interaction between these devices

[9].

The illustrated Figure (Figure 8) portrays a secure data communication architecture

tailored for IoT devices interacting with transaction nodes within a blockchain framework.

It delineates the intricate process by which IoT devices equipped with private keys sign data

before transmitting it securely to designated transaction nodes for upstream processing.

The figure emphasizes the establishment of a mutual trust agreement between these devices

and transaction nodes, highlighting the incorporation of advanced security techniques such

as whitelisting and two-way authentication. By visually representing this architecture, the

figure elucidates how blockchain technology serves as the underlying foundation ensuring

robust security measures for one-to-one interactions between IoT devices and transaction

nodes, safeguarding the integrity of data exchanges within the network.

Figure 8. Secure Data Communication of IoT Devices.

Moreover, hardware security measures are recommended for the secure storage of

private signing keys. The integration of blockchain technology presents a comprehensive

solution to the myriad security challenges inherent in amalgamating IoT and cloud

computing systems [10]. The core principles of blockchain, including decentralization,

cryptographic security, and immutability, play a pivotal role in resolving these issues.

Blockchain’s decentralized nature eradicates reliance on a central authority, thereby lessening

vulnerability to a single point of failure, a major concern in cloud environments [11].

The decentralized structure guarantees that data is not stored in a singular location, thereby

markedly decreasing the risk of data breaches or unauthorized access—a prevalent concern
in traditional centralized cloud systems. Additionally, the cryptographic algorithms used

in blockchain technology ensure secure and tamper-proof data transmission and storage.

Each data transaction is encrypted, time-stamped, and added to a chain of blocks, creating

an immutable record, thereby guaranteeing data integrity and authenticity.

Moreover, the consensus mechanisms employed in blockchain ensure consensus

among network participants, fostering trust and validating data accuracy without reliance

on a central authority. This enhances security in data exchange between IoT devices and

cloud systems. Smart contracts, a pivotal feature of blockchain, enable automated execution

of predefined terms and conditions, ensuring secure and transparent transactions among

devices without intermediaries. These contracts enable predefined protocols for various

actions, enhancing security by regulating access, utilization, and execution, reducing the

potential for human errors or malicious activities. The transparent and auditable nature

of blockchain ensures traceability and provenance of data, making it an excellent tool for

verifying the legitimacy and history of information, adding another layer of security and

trust to the integration of cloud computing and IoT systems [11]. Utilizing these attributes,

blockchain technology offers a robust, tamper-resistant, and secure foundation to tackle

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 34 of 53

the complex security concerns arising from the merging of IoT and cloud computing. This

establishes a dependable framework for handling, transmitting, and storing data within

these integrated systems.

Blockchain technology can enhance security in the integration of IoT devices with

cloud services through two separates: Transaction, which is carried out by the participant,

and Block, which is the data set responsible for recording all data and details of the

transaction. In addition, there are two types of this technology (private, public) that control

security within Internet of Things devices, where public Blockchain technology means that

permissions related to reading and writing are available to all users, such as the generation

of the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.

While private Blockchain technology means that user details are not available and can

only be seen by some trusted participants, thus helping to enhance security. In order to
enhance security, the technology relies on verifying each new transaction of participants

before adding it to the block chain by applying a set of rules. Several transactions are then

collected together in order to be added to a new block and then sent to all nodes within the

network, so that each block of the block chain contains a unique digital fingerprint[33].

The benefits of leveraging blockchain[33]:

• Blockchain technology is one of the first technologies to achieve security and transparency

for IoT devices.

• This technology achieves transparency by giving each node a private copy of the

blockchain and thus the data is not changed due to the existence of all transactions

and records.

• Encrypting data in block records using a private key that is not publicly auditable

thus enhancing security.

• This technology provides the advantage of decentralization, which means that transactions

and blocks are not stored within a storage device but are distributed among

nodes within the Blockchain network.

• This technology provides the advantage of nonbiased by relying on specific rules in

approving transactions.

Security problems in the Internet of Things are that interaction is between devices

and therefore it is difficult to build trust in exchanging data between multiple Internet of

Things devices. In addition, the Internet of Things depends onWireless Sensor Network

(WSN) technologies, which exposes it to many security threats DDoS and privacy breaches.

Blockchain technology helps in enhancing trust and solving security issues by tracking all

IoT devices and then enabling transaction processing and eliminating all points of failure.

Blockchain technology relies on implementing cryptographic algorithms such as hashing

in order to achieve security. In addition, this technology relies on consensus mechanisms to

enhance trust.

The technology is based on the decentralization feature that helps reduce failures

through interconnected nodes thus eliminating data processing risks. The technology also

relies on the cryptographic hashing feature in order to achieve data integrity, as each block
has a unique hash for the previous block, thus maintaining the sequence of blocks without

interruption. Finally, this technology relies on consensus mechanisms for PoW and PoS,

thus ensuring that the state of the ledger is correct[67]. Blockchain relies on immutable

ledgers that help enhance the integrity and trust of data, by creating historical records of

data and thus preserving it from manipulation or change.

4.7.1. Securing IoT Data with Blockchain

• How blockchain can ensure the integrity and privacy of data generated by IoT devices

when transmitted to and stored in cloud environments

Blockchain technology relies on the use of encryption algorithms that help maintain

the privacy and integrity of data once it enters the block, and therefore no one can

modify it. The blocks are also linked to each other in a serial manner, so the block

chain is tamper-proof, because changing any detail in the block requires changing all

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 35 of 53

the blocks, which makes the matter extremely difficult. This technology also works to

grant a copy of the entire ledge to each node within the network, thus the network’s

ability to confront attacks, which helps with data privacy.

• Using cryptographic techniques and smart contracts to enforce secure data handling

and access control.

Smart Contracts is a technology supported by Blockchain that aims to create contracts

and implement them independently in order to automate agreements and write them

in code, which helps to implement procedures automatically when conditions are

met, thus controlling access to data. Cryptographic techniques help secure data by

giving each participant two encryption keys, where the identity of the participant is

determined based on the public key, and the data is accessed using the private key. In

addition, these technologies help protect data from change by verifying transactions

and then recording them using mechanisms such as Proof of Work.

4.7.2. Enhancing Cloud Security with Blockchain

• How integrating blockchain technology with cloud services can bolster security measures,

particularly in securing data storage, access management, and authentication

Blockchain technology helps create a secure cloud environment, where this technology

relying on attribute-based encryption to control access to data. Decentralized ledger

technology is also relied upon to keep data secure, which includes creating keys,

defining access policies, and activating authentication protocols in order to determine

Identity. Specific users are allowed to access the data based on smart contract technology

that ensures a reliable connection with the user who has the right to access the

data[68].

• The potential of decentralized identity management systems and permissioned blockchains

for cloud security.

Decentralized identity management systems help provide security for the cloud by

relying on distributed ledger technology. Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI) is one of the

decentralized identity management systems that helps users control their identities

and thus prevent counterfeiting and ensure identity in obtaining secure transactions.

In these systems, permissioned blockchains are relied upon using nodes in order

to achieve global consensus, thus the ability to manage user credentials in order to

maintain privacy in the cloud[69].

4.7.3. Specific Industries or Applications Where Blockchain Has Demonstrated Significant

Improvements in Security.

Blockchain has shown significant improvements in safety in the autonomous vehicle

industry by preventing accidents and the ability to determine maneuvers between parties

in order to avoid an accident through the use of smart contracts, as this technology has

helped in the safety of all entities and avoiding collisions on the road.

Blockchain technology has also been successfully implemented in the swarm robotics

industry, as the features of this technology have helped ensure secure control between

devices in addition to security and scalability standards. In addition, the technology

relied on the use of the Proof-of-Authority algorithm, which helped reduce resources,

make correct decisions, and smooth communication between secret parties without any

collisions[70].
Creating a smart city based on the Internet of Things, where smart contracts within

blockchain technology are used to implement various operations with high efficiency and

accuracy (parking control, waste management, energy, etc.). Where the conditions stored

in smart contracts are relied upon to execute transactions and negotiate between devices in

order to achieve the energy-trading scenario[71].

Implementing a smart parking system based on the integration between the Internet of

Things and blockchain technology in order to activate the automated payment service based

Version December 9, 2023 submitted to Computers 36 of 53

on okenization of IoT interactions. This technology can make the payment process easy by

providing parking and requesting it in real time, thus reducing transaction costs[71].

4.7.4. Challenges and Considerations

• Addressing any challenges or limitations associated with adopting blockchain for

securing IoT and cloud integration.