Syllabus for final

Chapter 6
Operating System Basics

Operating system:

Operating system is an example of system software—software that controls the system's hardware
and that interacts with the user and application software. In short, the operating system is the
computer's master control program. The OS provides you with the tools (commands) that enable you
to interact with the PC. When you issue a command, the OS translates it into code that the machine
can use. The OS ensures that the results of your actions are displayed on screen, printed, and so on.
The operating system also acts as the primary controlling mechanism for the computer's hardware.

The operating system performs the following functions:

1. Displays the on-screen elements with which you interact—(he user interface.
2. Loads programs (such as word processing and spreadsheet programs) into the computer’s
memory so that you can use them.
3. Coordinates how programs work with the computer's hardware and other software.
4. Manages the way information is stored on and retrieved from disks.

Types of Operating Systems/ the types of operating systems a company can use for their
employees to execute business processes

1. Real-Time Operating Systems:

 A real-time operating system is a very fast, relatively small OS.
 A real-time operating system is needed to run real-time applications; it may support multiple
simultaneous tasks, or it may only support single-tasking.
 A real-time application is an application that responds to certain inputs extremely quickly—
thousandths or millionths of a second.
 Real-time applications are needed to run medical diagnostics equipment, life-support
systems, machinery, scientific instruments, and industrial systems.
 Ex: OpenComRTOS, MegaRAC

2. Single-User/Single-Tasking Operating Systems: personal use only

 An operating system that allows a single user to perform just one task at a time is a Single-
user/ Single-tasking operating system. MS-DOS is one example of a single-tasking OS.
 To a user, a "task" is a function such as printing a document, writing a file to disk, editing a
file, or downloading a file from a network server. To the operating system, a task is a process,
and small and simple OSs can only manage a single task at a time.
  Although such operating systems are limited by this characteristic, there is still a use for them,
because they take up very little space on disk or in memory when they are running and do not
require a powerful and expensive computer.

3. Single-User/Multitasking Operating Systems

 A single-user/multitasking operating systems one that allows a single user to perform two or
more functions at once. It takes a special operating system to keep two or more tasks running
at once. Example: Microsoft Windows and the Macintosh Operating System.
 The multitasking features of these OSs have greatly increased the productivity of people in a
large variety of jobs because they can accomplish more in a shorter period of time. It is also
helpful to be able to have two or more programs open, to share the data between the two
programs, and to be able to instantly switch between the two programs.
 A disadvantage of a single-user/multitasking operating system is the increased size and
complexity it needs to support multitasking.

4. Multi-User/Multitasking Operating Systems

 A multi-user/multitasking operating system is an operating system that allows multiple users
to use programs that are simultaneously running on a single network server; called a terminal
server. Example: UNIX, VMS, and mainframe operating systems such as MVS.
 It gives each user a complete environment, called a user session, on the server. The software
that makes this possible is called a terminal client. In a multi-user/multitasking operating
system environment, all or most of the computing occurs at the server.
 The advantage of these operating systems is that they can be managed by simply making
changes to one server, rather than to many desktop computers.
 A disadvantage is that if the network connection to the server is broken, the user cannot do
any work in the applications on the server.

Common types of user interfaces:

1. Graphical User Interfaces

Most current operating systems, including all

versions of Windows, the Macintosh
operating system and some versions of UNIX
and Linux, provide a graphical user interface.

Graphical user interfaces are so called

because you use a mouse to work with
graphical objects such as windows, menus,
icons, buttons, and other tools. These
graphical tools all represent different types of
commands; the GUI enables you to issue
commands to the computer by using visual objects instead of typing commands.

The small pictures on the desktop—called shortcuts—represent links to resources on the PC or

network. Although shortcuts are often called icons, an icon actually is only the tiny graphic that
represents an object, such as programs, folders, files, printers, and shortcuts. Using mouse or other
pointing device, one can move the pointer and choose a shortcut to use resource. For example, you
can choose the Microsoft Word shortcut to launch that program.

This is one of the key advantages of a graphical user interface; it frees you from memorizing and
typing text commands.

2. Command-Line Interfaces

Some older operating systems (such as MS-DOS)

and some current versions of UNIX and Linux
feature a command-line interface, which uses
typewritten commands— rather than graphical
objects—to execute tasks.

A command-line interface displays in character

mode—using only alphanumeric and other
simple symbols. Users interact with a command-
line interface by typing strings of characters at a
prompt on the screen.

This command prompt is most often used by administrators to run non-GUI programs for managing
and troubleshooting Windows. In fact, any program that can be run in Windows can be launched
from here, opening its own GUI window.
 Chapter 7
Networking Topologies

Network Defined:

A network is a set of technologies—including hardware, software, and media— that can be used to
connect computers together, enabling them to communicate, exchange information, and share
resources in real time.

The Uses of a Network

 Nearly all networks require hardware, software, and media—such as wires—to connect
computer systems together. Networks allow many users to access shared data and programs
almost instantly. When data and programs are stored on a network and are shared, individual
users can substantially reduce the need for programs on their own computers.
 Networks open up new ways to communicate, such as e-mail and instant messaging. By
allowing users to share expensive hardware resources such as printers, networks reduce the
cost of running an organization.

Computer Network Structure

Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating system.
Servers provide access to
network resources to all the
users of the network. There are
many different kinds of servers,
and one server can provide
several functions. For example,
there are file servers, print
servers, mail servers,
communication servers,
database servers, fax servers
and web servers, to name a
few.

Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Client
computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they request and receive services
from the servers.

Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers in a
network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are
sometimes called channels, links or lines.
Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special
expansion card called a network interface card (NIC). The NIC
prepares (formats) and sends data, receives data, and controls data
flow between the computer and the network.

Network Operating System - The network operating system is a

program that runs on computers and servers, and allows the
computers to communicate over the network.

Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components.

Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each
incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.

Router - When we talk about computer network

components, the other device that used to connect a LAN
with an internet connection is called Router. When you
have two distinct networks (LANs) or want to share a
single internet connection to multiple computers, we use
a Router.

LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as Ethernet cable
which is a wired cable used to connect a device to the internet or to
other devices like other computer, printers, etc.

Common Types of Network:

Local Area Networks (LANs)

 A local area network (LAN) is a data communication system consisting of several devices such
as computers and printers. This type of network contains computers that are relatively near
each other and are physically connected using cables, infrared links, or wireless media.
 A LAN can consist of just two or three PCs connected together to share resources, or it can
include hundreds of computers of different kinds.
 Any network that exists within a single building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is
considered a LAN.
 It is often helpful to connect separate LANs together so they can communicate and exchange
data. In a large company, for example, two departments located on the same floor of a
building may have their own separate LANs, but if the departments need to share data, then
they can create a link between the two LANs.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 The metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large-scale network that connects multiple
corporate LANs together.
 For example, a company may have its corporate headquarters and manufacturing plant in one
city and its marketing dept. in another. Each site needs resources, data, and programs locally,
but it also needs to share data with the other sites.
 MANs usually are not owned by a single organization; their communication devices and
equipment are usually maintained by a group or single network provider that sells its
networking services to corporate customers.
 MANs often take the role of a high-speed network that allows for the sharing of regional
resources.
 MANs also can provide a shared connection to other networks using a WAN link.
 MAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

 Typically, a wide area network (WAN) is two or more LANs connected together, generally
across a wide geographical area. To accomplish this feat of data communication, the company
can attach devices that connect over public utilities to create a WAN.
 For example, businesses with many international branch offices use a WAN to connect office
networks together. The world’s largest WAN is the internet because it is a collection of many
international networks that connect to each other. This article focuses on enterprise WANs
and their uses and benefits.
 These remote LANs are connected through a telecommunication network (a phone company)
or via the Internet through an Internet service provider (ISP) that contracts with the
telecommunication networks to gain access to the Internet’s backbone.
A WAN can connect various different LANs in its network. Additionally, it can be private or a publicly
accessible network. Comparatively, WAN is very high speed but expensive. The internet is an
example of a WAN.
Intranets (private accessible network)
 The company’s internal version of the Internet is called an intranet. Intranet usually limits
access to employees and selected contractors having ongoing business with the company.
 Just like the Internet, users are allowed to browse their Web site and to upload or download
files, video clips, audio clips, and other such media. Users also can set controls and limit who
may access the Web site.
 An intranet resides completely within the company's internal network and is accessible only
to people that are members of the same company or organization.

Extranets (publicly accessible network)

 An extranet is a partially accessible internal company Web site for authorized users physically
located outside the organization.
 Extranets are becoming a popular method for employees to exchange information using the
company’s Web site or e-mail while traveling or working from home.
 An extranet provides various levels of accessibility to outsiders.
 One can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and password, and your identity
determines which parts of the extranet one can view.

Network Topology:
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes
(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer,
with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for ring topology
with large number of nodes.
2. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is
bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through
each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic
or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the
hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, optical fiber or
coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network
traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Mesh Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in
an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting
these topologies will result in Hybrid
Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or
topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and
disadvantages of the topologies
included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
 Chapter 8

Doing business in the online world

Electronic commerce is buying and selling products online. It is centered on buying and selling, thus
encompasses the entire online process of developing, marketing, selling, delivering, servicing, and
paying for products and services transacted on internetworked, global marketplaces of customers,
with the support of a worldwide network of business partners.

Types of Ecommerce:

 Business-To-Consumer (B2C): In this form of e-commerce, businesses must develop attractive

electronic marketplaces to sell products and services to consumers.

 Consumer-To-Consumer (C2C): Here consumers (as well as businesses) can buy from and sell
to one another.

 Business-To-Business (B2B): This category of e-commerce involves both e-business

marketplaces and direct market links between businesses.

Essential security measures for buying and selling online:

For business perspective: (Encryption, VPN, Firewalls, HTTPs, Data backup protect data and network
resources)

VPN HTTPS

Encryption Firewall
Secured
Website

1. Encryption of data has become an important way to protect data and other computer network
resources, especially on the Internet, intranets, and extranets. Passwords, messages, files, and
other data can be transmitted in scrambled form and unscrambled by computer systems for
authorized users only. Encryption involves using special mathematical algorithms or keys, to
transform digital data into a scrambled code before they are transmitted, and then to decode the
data when they are received.

2. VPN: A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a
device to a network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely
transmitted.
3. HTTPS: Implementing an SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) certificate transforms the website from HTTP
to HTTPS, the current Internet security standard. SSLs are critical in encrypting financial
information, ensuring customer payment data remains secure when purchasing on your e-
commerce store. It also impacts how search engines perceive the website giving higher ranking to
the site.

4. Firewalls: With a firewall which is a combination of hardware and software, one can effectively
prevent cyber security attacks thus protect data from intruders. Firewall monitors incoming and
outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined
set of security rules.

5. Back up website data: Backing up won’t stop any security threats you may face, but it will help to
minimize or reduce the damage done. It will help protect information from being lost, corrupted,
or held hostage.

Essential security measures for buying and selling online:

For customers’ perspective:

 Strong password: Strong passwords safeguard your e-commerce platform, employees, and
customers. A robust password with special characters, uppercase and lowercase letters, and
numbers. Creating complex passwords makes it challenging for hackers to gain unauthorized
access to your store or your customers' sensitive information.

 User profile: User profile created with correct details helps filter out fake customers finding
authentic users.

 Two-factor authentication: By implementing this security protocol, you ensure that only
authorized users, including yourself and your customers, can access your e-commerce
platform, making it much safer in the long run.

 Encryption

 HTTPS
 Chapter 9
Internet services & creating online portfolio

The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of businesses, government
agencies, educational institutions, and individuals. In short it the network of networks. Because the
Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet,
as such, has no governing body.

The Internet’s features

The Internet acts as a carrier for several different services, each with its own distinct features and
purposes. The most commonly used Internet services are described below:

 The World Wide Web: also is called posting or uploading. Web pages are used to distribute
news, interactive educational services, product information, catalogs, highway traffic reports,
and live audio and video, and other kinds of information. Web pages permit readers to
consult databases, order products and information, and submit payment with a credit card or
an account number.
 Electronic mail: Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a system for exchanging messages through a
computer network. People most commonly use e-mail to send and receive text messages, but
depending on the software you use, you may be able to exchange audio or video messages
with someone else.
 News: In addition to the messages distributed to mailing lists by e-mail, the Internet also
supports a form of public bulletin board called news. There are tens of thousands of active
Internet newsgroups, each devoted to discussion of a particular topic.
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the internet tool used to copy file from one computer to
another. FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer files between a client
and server on a computer network. FTP is built on client-server model architecture and uses
separate control and data connections between the client and the server.
 Web-Based Chat: Internet relay chat (IRC), or just chat, is a popular way for Internet users to
communicate in real time with other users. Real-time communication means communicating
with other users in the immediate present. Unlike e-mail, chat does not require a waiting
period between the time you send a message and the time the other person or group of
people receives the message.
 Online Services: An Online Service is a company that offers access on a subscription basis to
email, discussion groups, and databases on various subjects such as weather information,
stock quotes, and newspaper articles and so on.
 Peer-to-peer Services: Peer-to-peer Services are distributed networks that do not require a
central server such as web server to manage files. Peer-to-peer Services are popular because
they allow people to share file of all types directly from the peer connections available via the
peer software.
Internetworking Protocol

TCP/IP is the communication protocol for the Internet. The TCP/IP protocol has two parts: TCP and IP.
Features of TCP and IP are:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable transport service, i.e. it ensures that
messages sent from sender to receiver are properly routed and arrive intact at the
destination.
 Internet Protocol (IP) allows different computers to communicate by creating a network of
networks. IP handles the dispatch of packets over the network. It handles the addressing of
packets, and ensures that a packet reaches its destination traveling through multiple
networks with multiple standards.

The computers connected to Internet may be personal computers or mainframes; the computers
could have a slow or fast CPU, small or large memory, connected to different networks having slow
or fast speed. TCP/IP protocol makes it possible for any pair of computers connected to Internet to
communicate, despite their hardware differences.

Bandwidth and cost are the two factors that help the user in deciding which Internet connection to
use. Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through a communication medium in a
fixed amount of time. The speed of Internet access depends on the bandwidth. The speed of Internet
access increases with the increase in bandwidth.

Internet Address

A computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address in order to communicate across
the Internet. Internet Protocol (IP) address is assigned uniquely to every computer connected to the
Internet. IP address is provided by the ISP whose services you use to connect your computer to the
Internet. IP address is a string of numbers consisting of four parts, where each part is a number
between 0 and 255. An IP address looks like 201.54.122.107.

Domain name is a text name (string of words) corresponding to the numeric IP address of a
computer on the Internet. Domain names are used for the convenience of the user.

com—for commercial organizations

edu—for educational institutions,
net—for gateways and administrative hosts
org—for non-profit organizations
co—for companies
ac—for academics
World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW (also called as Web) is a large scale, online store of information. The features of WWW and
terms linked to WWW are given below—

 The documents on web are created in hypertext format. Hypertext is not constrained to be
text: it can include graphics, video and sound. This is important for web development.
 The language used to create a hypertext format document is HyperText Markup Language
(HTML). HTML allows the designer of the document to include text, pictures, video, images,
sound, graphics, movies etc., and also to link contents on the same document or different
documents using a hyperlink. This is important for web development.
 The hypertext format document is transferred on the Web using HyperText Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
 A single hypertext document is called a Web page.
 A group of related web pages is called a Web site. A web site displays related information on
a specific topic. The first web page or main page of a website is called Homepage.
 The web pages are stored on the Internet on the Web Server. Web servers are host
computers that can store thousands of web pages. Websites on the Internet can be viewed
from the user’s computer using a tool called Web browser. Web Browser (or browser) is a
software program that extracts information on user request from the Internet and presents it
as a web page to the user. It is also referred to as the user interface of the web. Some of the
popular web browsers are—Internet Explorer from Microsoft, Mosaic browser, Google’s
chrome, and Netscape Navigator.
 Every web page is identified on Internet by its address, also called Uniform Resource Locator
(URL).
 A web portal is a web site that presents information from different sources and makes them
available in a unified way. A web portal enables the user to search for any type of information
from a single location. A web portal generally consists of a search engine, e-mail service;
news, advertisements, and an extensive list of links to other sites etc. www.msn.com and
www.google.com are popular web portals.

How web works

On the simplest level, the Web physically consists of the following components:

1. Personal computer − this is the PC at which you sit to see the web.
2. A Web browser − a software installed on your PC which helps you to browse the Web.
3. An internet connection − this is provided by an ISP and connects you to the internet to
reach to any Website.
4. A Web server − this is the computer on which a website is hosted.
5. Routers & Switches − they are the combination of software and hardware who take your
request and pass to appropriate Web server.
How WWW is different from internet

The Internet & the World Wide Web (the Web), though used interchangeably, are not synonymous.
Internet is the hardware part - it is a collection of computer networks connected through either
copper wires, fiber-optic cables or wireless connections whereas, the World Wide Web can be
termed as the software part – it is a collection of web pages connected through hyperlinks and URLs.
In short, the World Wide Web is one of the services provided by the Internet. Other services over the
Internet include e-mail, chat and file transfer services. All of these services can be provided to
consumers for use by businesses or government or by individuals creating their own networks or
platforms.

Another method to differentiate between both is using the protocol suite – a collection of laws &
regulations that govern the Internet. While internet is governed by the Internet Protocol –
specifically dealing with data as whole and their transmission in packets, the World Wide Web is
governed by the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that deals with the linking of files, documents
and other resources of the World Wide Web.

Benefits of using Internet in Business

No business, corporation or organization can do without the internet these days. With the advantage
of the internet, even small businesses can compete with bigger corporations and organizations for
increased online presence reaching their potential customers earning them subsequent revenue.

 Globalization: Internet has global reach. One can create international relationships with new
vendors so they can reduce costs and gain new customers so as to increase sales.
 Increased Online Sales: The internet has made it really easy for people to buy online. You can
purchase things online delivered to your doorstep. So, if you want to increase online sales,
you need people to be able to buy your services and products 24/7.
 More Clients or Customers: One more major advantage of the internet is the chance to gain
more online clients or customers.
 Enhanced Customer Service: If you take your business to the web, your customer service will
definitely improve. On your website, your customers should be able to access details about
your products.
 Reduced Expenses: The biggest benefit of using the internet for business is its cost-
effectiveness due to reduced expenses. If you communicate with your partners and potential
customers via snail mail or phone calls, it may cost you money.
 Increased Productivity: Improved efficiency (skill) increases productivity (the ability to do
work in a period of time).
 Communication: The internet has changed communication forever. Sending him or her
emails, discussing strategies and issues on live video chats and conferences have become the
norm. This means higher efficiency and quicker response time enhancing processing of sales.