SPH 422: SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND MATERIALS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... III

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ V

MODULE OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................... VI

LECTURE ONE .................................................................................................................. 1

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS................................................................................ 1

LECTURE TWO ................................................................................................................. 8

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS .................................................................................... 8

LECTURE THREE ........................................................................................................... 22

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICOND ................................................................................ 22

LECTURE FOUR .............................................................................................................. 30

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ........................................................... 30

LECTURE FIVE................................................................................................................ 38

LECTURE SIX .................................................................................................................. 48

P-N JUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 48

LECTURE SEVEN ............................................................................................................ 55

P-N JUNCTION DIODE ........................................................................................................... 55

LECTURE EIGHT ............................................................................................................ 60

SPECIAL PURPOSE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS .......... 60

LECTURE NINE ............................................................................................................... 69

TRANSISTORS......................................................................................................................... 69

LECTURE TEN ................................................................................................................. 78

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS ............................ 78

LECTURE ELEVEN ......................................................................................................... 88

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS ............................................................................................. 88

LECTURE TWELVE ........................................................................................................ 98

III
 TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ........................................ 98

LECTURE THIRTEEN ....................................................................................................106

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ............................................................................................. 106

LECTURE FOURTEEN ...................................................................................................117

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES .............................................................................. 117

GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................123

ANSWERS TO NUMERICAL SELF-TEST QUESTIONS ..............................................127

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................129

IV
INTRODUCTION

It has been noted with great concern that many electrical engineering students are more
comfortable building electronic circuits or writing computer programs than studying the
underlying principles of semiconductor devices. The purpose of this course is to provide
a basis for understanding the characteristics, operation, applications and limitations of
semiconductor materials and devices. In order to gain this understanding, it is essential to
have a thorough knowledge of the Physics of the semiconductor materials. The goal of
this course is to bring together quantum mechanics, the quantum theory of solids,
semiconductor material Physics and semiconductor device Physics. All of these
components are vital to the understanding of both the operation of present day devices
and any future development in the field. The material I have presented here is vital to an
understanding of the limitations of electronic devices, such as transistors, diodes, gates,
microprocessors and microcontrollers among others. Mathematics is used extensively
throughout this module. This may at times seem tedious, but the end result is an
understanding that will not otherwise occur. Although some of the mathematical models
used to describe physical processes may seem abstract, they have withstood the test of
time in their ability to describe and predict these physical processes. The prerequisites for
understanding this course are college mathematics up to and including differential
equations, and college Physics, including an introduction to modern Physics and
electrostatics. Prior completion of an introductory course in electronic circuits is helpful,
but not essential.

Lectures one and two gives a brief review of solids as a state of matter. The solid crystal
structures and their electrical properties have been given an in depth look. Lecture three,
four and five discusses semiconductor basics being the basic building blocks of
semiconductor devices. The classification of semiconductors depending on their purity,
has been emphasized.

Lectures six and seven gives a closer look at P-N junction diodes that are the basic
semiconductor devices building blocks. Lecture eight now covers some special purpose
semiconductor devices.

Lecture nine, ten, eleven and twelve covers properties of transistors (Bipolar and
Unipolar types).

Lectures thirteen and fourteen covers operation amplifiers and power semiconductor
devices respectively.

V
MODULE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this course module, you should be able to:

Describe semiconductors and outline the significance of their electrical

conductivities

Outline the various categories of semiconductors

Explain the industrial significance of semiconductors

Describe how semiconductors are used in the fabrication of different

semiconductor devices

Identify various semiconductor devices and explain their application areas

VI
 LECTURE ONE

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The entire course primarily deals with the electrical properties and characteristics of
semiconductor materials and devices. The electrical properties of solids are therefore of
primary interest. Before looking at the electrical properties of solids, it is of prime interest
to first gain knowledge of the structure of a solid in terms of arrangement of its particles.
Since all matter are made up of atoms, this call for a prerequisite knowledge of how
particles are arranged in an atom (atomic structure). In this lecture I am going to give a
brief description of the structure of an atom and highlight the properties and differences
between conductors, semiconductors and insulators in terms of electrical conduction.

1.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Describe the structure of atoms

Use atomic structure to explain electrical conduction in solids

Explain the electrical properties of conductors, semiconductors and insulators

Describe the differences between conductors, semiconductors and insulators

1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

For a long time, atoms were believed to be the smallest particles of matter. However, it
was later discovered that atoms consist primarily of electrons, protons, and neutrons. A
number of models were earlier proposed to explain the structure of an atom. Dalton and
Rutherford’s models were some of such models. In this subtopic, I shall describe the
structure of an atom by use of a modified Bohr’s model. I will also use the model to
explain the difference in electrical conduction in different solids.

1
1.3.1 THE BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

A more recent model which is an improvement of Rutherford’s model was proposed by

Niels Bohr in 1915. The model is not completely correct, but it has many features that are
approximately correct and it is sufficient for much of our lesson. In this lecture, I am
going to explain the atomic structure by adopting a modified Bohr model as I have stated
in section 1.3. The Bohr Model is familiarly known as the "planetary model" of the
atom and is illustrated in figure 1.1. Atoms are known to be made up of electrons, protons
and neutrons. In the Bohr model the neutrons and protons as symbolized by red and
blue balls respectively in the figure below occupy a dense central region called the
nucleus, and the electrons orbit the nucleus much like planets orbiting the Sun (but the
orbits are not confined to a plane as is approximately true in the Solar System). In the
Bohr atom, the orbits are restricted to certain discrete values or quantized. This means
that only certain orbits with certain radii are allowed. The electrons are attracted to the
positively charged nucleus and revolve around it.

Figure 1.1: A schematic of Bohr’s atomic model

1.3.2 THE ORIGIN OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

As I have illustrated in the Bohr’s atomic model in section 1.3.1, there are two types of
charges, labeled positive (+) and negative (-), with the property that “like” charges repel,
and “unlike” charges attract. Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively
charged and neutrons carry no charge. Most atoms have outer shells that are not fully
filled. The force F keeping the electrons in orbit is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the electron orbit to the protons in the nucleus. This can easily be
inferred from the Coulomb’s law equation below:

Q1Q2
F=K (1.1)
r2

2
where K is proportionality constant and r is the distance between the two charges Q1 and
Q2.

Thus, electrons can be added and taken away most easily from the outermost shells.
These electrons are responsible for electrical conduction in a solid. The ease with which
the electrons in the outer orbit is lost or gained makes a solid to be classified as a
conductor, semiconductor or insulator. We shall discuss these classes of solids in
section 1.4.

1.4 TYPES OF SOLIDS

As we have seen in section 1.3, the electrons in the outermost shell of the atom are
responsible for conduction in solids. Thus, solids may be classified according to their
ability for electric current conduction. Solids can hence be conductors, semiconductors or
insulators as has been mentioned above. In this section, I will discuss in details these
three categories of solids and justify their disparity in electric current conduction in light
of their crystal structure.

1.4.1 CONDUCTORS

In section 1.3.1, we saw that the pull of the protons keeps the electrons from flying away
out of their orbits. The laws of quantum physics says that electrons orbiting a nucleus can
only travel in specific “bands” or “shells”. In addition, each shell has a limit as to how
many electrons it can hold. The electrons orbiting in the shells closest to the nucleus have
the least energy so those shells are normally filled. Most atoms have outer shells that are
not fully filled. The force keeping the electrons in orbit is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance to the protons in the nucleus as inferred by Coulomb’s law. Thus
electrons can be added and taken away most easily from the outermost shells due to less
attraction by the nucleus. In a conductor, the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely
bound and free to move through the material. In fact, the electrons are so mobile, that
they are sometimes described as an electron gas in which the atomic nuclei rest. The
band theory of materials can be used to give a full description of conductors.

I will now briefly digress into the band theory of materials. When an atom is in isolation,
we speak of its electrons occupying particular discrete energy states. But when a solid
consisting of many atoms is formed, the electrons occupy energy bands. The outer-most
band in an atom is the valence band. When atoms form a solid, electrons may be
elevated into a higher energy level called the conduction band. In conductors, we find
that the conduction and valence bands overlap and there is absence of forbidden zone as
illustrated in the figure 1.2.

3
 Electron
Energy
Conduction band

Valence band

Figure 1.2: A schematic of energy band structure of a conductor

The best naturally occurring conductor is silver. Copper is almost as good at conducting
as silver, and it costs a lot less. Therefore, copper is the most popular material used in
electrical wiring. Most metals are good electrical conductors, most nonmetals are not.

1.4.2 SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are a group of materials having conductivities falling between those of

metals (conductors) and insulators. I will again employ the band theory to bring out the
difference between the semiconductors and conductors as we have discussed in section
1.4.1. In semiconductors, the forbidden zone is very small. With such a small gap, a small
thermal or electrical excitation can elevate electrons into the conduction zone. Applied
electric fields can elevate many electrons to the conduction band. Thus with just a little
coaxing, the material may look like a conductor or an insulator. Figure 1.3 shows energy
band diagram of semiconductor crystal with a narrow forbidden gap.

Electron
Energy
Conduction band

Eg~1 eV Narrow forbidden gap

Valence band

Figure 1.3: A schematic of energy band structure of a semiconductor

4
Two general classifications of semiconductors are the elemental semiconductor materials
and compound semiconductor materials. These classes shall be discussed in details in the
next lecture.

1.4.3 INSULATORS

In most solid materials, the outermost electrons of their atoms are so tightly bound that
there are no free electrons that can freely move throughout the material. These materials
are known as insulators. Typically, the electrons are tightly shared in the orbits of two
adjacent atoms. Let us now describe insulators using band theory. They have a wide
forbidden gap between valence and conduction bands that keeps electrons out of the
conduction band at ordinary temperatures. This can be observed in figure 1.4. Substantial
outside energy is required to elevate the valence electrons into the conduction zone.

Electron
Energy
Conduction band

Eg~9 eV Wide forbidden gap

Valence band

Figure 1.4: A schematic of energy band structure of an insulator

Most compounds of carbon and hydrogen are like this. Plastics, whose molecules are
made from long combinations of carbon and hydrogen atoms, have few or no free
electrons. This means that plastics make excellent electrical insulators. However, with
enough voltage applied, any insulating material will eventually succumb to the electrical
“pressure” and electron flow will occur. For voltages below a certain threshold, virtually
no electrons will flow, but if the voltage exceeds that threshold, there will be a rush of
current. This occurs at what is called the materials breakdown voltage. Thickness of an
insulating material plays a role in determining its breakdown voltage, otherwise known as
dielectric strength. Specific dielectric strength is often listed in terms of kilovolts per
inch, but the relationship between breakdown voltage and thickness is not exactly linear.
However, for rough estimation use, volt-per-thickness ratings are fine. Below is a table
showing the dielectric strength of several common semiconducting materials.

5
 Material Dielectric
Strength
(kV/inch)

Vacuum 20

Air 20-75

Porcelain 40-200

Rubber 450-750

Paper 1250

Teflon 1500

Glass 2000-3000

Mica 5000

1.5 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have looked at the modified Bohr’s atomic structure. We have used
this model to describe electrical conduction in solids. We have seen that solids are
categorized as conductors, semiconductors or insulators depending on their conduction
rates. The band theory has been used to explain conduction in these solid types. We have
seen that conductors have very thin or no forbidden gap between the conduction band and
the valence band, semiconductors have thin forbidden gap between the conduction band
and the valence band while insulators have very large forbidden gap between the
conduction band and the valence band.

1.6 ACTIVITIES

Collect any ten conductors in your vicinity and arrange them according to their electrical
conductivities. Investigate the relationship between the electrical and thermal
conductivities of these materials. Is there a correlation? Try to explain this observation.

6
1.7 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Pierret, R. F. (1996). Semiconductor Device Fundamentals. Reading, MA:

Addison-Wesley.

3. Runyan, W. R., and Bean K. E. (1990). Semiconductor Integrated Circuit

Processing and Technology Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

4. Singh, J. (2001). Semiconductor Devices: Basic Princip1e.r New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

5. Streetman, B. G., and Banerjee, S (2006). Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th
edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

6. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

1.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Outline briefly the Bohr’s atomic model as it applies to solids

2. Describe briefly the origin of electric current in solids
3. Use the band theory to explain the electrical conduction in conductors,
semiconductors and insulators
4. Silver is known to have higher electrical conduction than copper while copper is
the most commonly used conductor. Explain why
5. What are valence electrons? Are they used for bonding in solids?
6. What is meant by energy gap?
7. Compare the energy gap of conductors, semiconductors and insulators

7
 LECTURE TWO

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

As I outlined in the module introduction, this course module deals with the electrical
properties and characteristics of semiconductor materials and devices. The electrical
properties of semiconductors are therefore of primary interest. Crystallinity of a
semiconductor material affects its properties such as mechanical, metallurgical, chemical
and electrical. It is hence of paramount importance to give a clear understanding of what
a crystal is. A semiconductor is in general a single-crystal material. The electrical
properties of a single crystal material are determined not only by the chemical
composition but also by the arrangement of atoms in the solid; this being true, a brief
study of the crystal structure of solids is warranted. The formation, or growth, of the
single crystal material is an important part of semiconductor technology. In this lecture,
we shall look in details the common crystals and their relation to electric conduction in
the crystal. Types of atomic bonding and semiconductor growth methods are also
outlined.

2.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Define a crystal, lattice, lattice point, unit cell and primitive cell.

Describe common crystal structures: Simple cubic, FCC, Zinc Blende and
diamond structures.

Determine the volume density of atoms for various lattice structures.

Determine the Miller indices of a crystal-lattice plane.

Sketch a lattice plane given the Miller indices.

Perform simple calculations about crystals.

2.3 TYPES OF SOLIDS

Before we go deep into this discussion, we need to define a crystal. There are many
definitions of a crystal but in them all, the atoms of a crystal are arranged in a regular or

8
periodic (repeated) manner. It can be defined as a solid formed by the solidification of a
chemical and having a highly regular atomic structure. A crystalline solid is distinguished
by the fact that atoms making up the crystal are arranged in a periodic fashion. This
means there is some basic arrangement of atoms that is repeated throughout the solid.

Amorphous, polycrystalline, and single crystal are the three general types of solid crystal
structures. Each type is characterized by the size of an ordered region within the material.
An ordered region is a spatial volume in which atoms or molecules have a regular
geometric arrangement or periodicity. Amorphous materials have order only within a
few atomic or molecular dimensions, while polycrystalline materials have a high degree
of order over many atomic or molecular dimensions. These ordered regions or single-
crystal regions vary in size and orientation with respect to one another. The single-crystal
regions are called grains and are separated from one another by grain boundaries. Single-
crystal materials, ideally, have a high degree of order, or regular geometric periodicity,
throughout the entire volume of the material. The advantage of a single-crystal material is
that in general, its electrical properties are superior to those of a non single-crystal
material, since grain boundaries tend to degrade the electrical characteristics. Two-
dimensional representations of amorphous, polycrystalline, and single-crystal materials
are shown in Figure 2.1 (a), (b) and (c) respectively.

Figure 2.1: Schematics of three general types of crystals: (a) amorphous, (b)
polycrystalline, (c) single crystal.

2.4 SPACE LATTICES

In this lecture, my primary concern will be the single crystal with its regular geometric
periodicity in the atomic arrangement. A representative unit, or group of atoms, is
repeated at regular intervals in each of the three dimensions to form the single crystal.
9
The periodic arrangement of atoms in the crystal is called the lattice. We can represent a
particular atomic array by a dot that is called a lattice point. Figure 2.2 shows an infinite
two-dimensional array of lattice points. The simplest means of repeating an atomic array
is by translation. Each lattice point in Figure 2.2 can be translated a distance a1 in one
direction and a distance b1 in a second non-collinear direction to generate the two-
dimensional lattice. A third non-collinear translation will produce the three-dimensional
lattice. The translation directions need not be perpendicular.

b1

a1

Figure 2.2: Two-dimensional representation of a single-crystal lattice.

Since the three-dimensional lattice is a periodic repetition of a group of atoms, we do not

need to consider the entire lattice, but only a fundamental unit that is being repeated. A
unit cell is a small volume of the crystal that can be used to reproduce the entire crystal.
A unit cell is not a unique entity. Figure 2.3 shows several possible unit cells in a two-
dimensional lattice.

Figure 2.3: Two-dimensional representation of a single-crystal lattice showing various

possible unit cells.

From figure 2.3, you can see that the unit cell A can be translated in directions a2 and b2,
the unit cell B can be translated in directions a3 and b3 and the entire two-dimensional
lattice can be constructed by the translations of either of these unit cells. The unit cells C
and D in the figure can also be used to construct the entire lattice by using the appropriate

10
translations. We can easily extend this discussion of two-dimensional unit cells to three
dimensions to describe a real single-crystal material. A primitive cell is the smallest unit
cell that can be repeated to form the lattice. In many cases, it is more convenient to use a
unit cell that is not a primitive cell. Unit cells may be chosen that have orthogonal sides,
for example, whereas the sides of a primitive cell may be non-orthogonal. A generalized
three-dimensional unit cell is shown in Figure 2.4.

a
Figure 2.4: A generalized primitive unit cell.

Every equivalent lattice point in the three-dimensional crystal can he found using the
vector;
r r r r
r = pa + qb + sc (2.1)

where p, q, and s are integers. Since the location of the origin is arbitrary, we will let p, q
and s be positive integers for simplicity.

2.5 BASIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Before we discuss the semiconductor crystal structure, let us consider the three common
crystal structures and determine some of the basic characteristics of these crystals. By
knowing the crystal structure of a material and its lattice dimensions, we can determine
several characteristics of the crystal. For example, we can determine the volume density
of atoms. For the simple structures to be discussed below, we may choose unit cells such
that the general vectors a, b, c are perpendicular to each other and the lengths are equal.

11
Figure 2.5 shows the simple cubic structure. The simple cubic (sc) structure has an atom
located at each corner of the unit cell.

Figure 2.5: Simple cubic structure

The body-centered cubic (bcc) structure has an additional atom at the center of the cube
as shown in figure 2.6. It can be seen as a simple cubic structure but with additional atom
at the center of the cube.

Figure 2.6: Body-centered cubic structure

The face-centered cubic (fcc) structure has additional atoms on each face plane as
depicted in figure 2.7. It can also be seen as a simple cubic structure but with additional
atoms at each of the six faces.

12
 Figure 2.7: Face-centered cubic structure

2.6 CRYSTAL PLANES AND DIRECTIONS

The knowledge of crystal planes and directions within the lattice are very important when
we are discussing crystals. A set of integers are generally adopted to describe the position
of a plane or the direction of a vector within a lattice. The xyz coordinates are first set up
with the origin at any lattice point and the axes lined up with the edges of the cubic unit
cell. I now illustrate how to find the three integers that describes a particular plane. This I
will do in three steps as outlined below:

Find the intercepts of the plane with the crystal axes. Express them as integral
multiples of the basis vectors

Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step 1. If possible reduce these
to smallest set of integers h, k and l.

Label the plane (hkl)

I now give a simple example using the plane in figure 2.8; Find the Miller indices

Steps
z
1) Find the intercepts of the
plane with the crystal axes: 1,
½, 1

Express them as integral

multiples of the basis vectors:
y 2,1,2

2) Take the reciprocals of the

three integers found in step 1:
½, 1, ½
x
If possible reduce these to
smallest set of integers h, k
and l: 1, 2, 1

3) Label the plane (hkl):

(121)

Figure 2.8: A crystal plane in a Cartesian plane

13
Reflection

The reciprocals of intercepts are taken to avoid infinities in the notations. This would
otherwise occur when a plane is parallel to a given axis. If a plane passes through the
origin, it can be translated to a parallel position for calculation of Miller indices. If an
intercept occurs on the negative branch of an axis, a negative sign is placed above the
Miller index for convenience such as ( hk l ). Miller indices of equivalent planes are
enclosed in brace brackets {}. Equivalent direction indices are placed in angular brackets
<>. For direction indices, [] brackets are used. The distance between planes and angles
between directions are given by two useful relationships in terms of Miller indices. The
distance d between two adjacent planes labeled (hkl) is given in terms of the lattice
constant, a, as:

a
d= (2.2)
(h + k 2 + l 2 )1 2
2

The angle θ between two different Miller index directions is given by:

h1h2 + k1k 2 + l1l2

Cosθ = (2.3)
{( h1 + k1 + l1 )1 2 (h2 + k 2 + l2 )1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

2.7 THE DIAMOND STRUCTURE

As already stated, silicon is the most common semiconductor material. Silicon is referred
to as a group 1V element and has a diamond crystal structure. Germanium is also a group
1V element and has the same diamond structure. A unit cell of the diamond structure,
shown in Figure 2.9, is more complicated than the simple cubic structures that we have
considered up to this point.

14
Figure 2.9: The tetrahedral structure of the closest neighbors in the diamond lattice

We may begin to understand the diamond lattice by considering the tetrahedral structure
shown in Figure 2.9. This structure is basically a body-centered cubic structure with four
of the comer atoms missing. Every atom in the tetrahedral structure has four nearest
neighbors and it is this structure which is the basic building block of the diamond lattice.
An important characteristic of the diamond lattice is that any atom within the diamond
structure will have four nearest neighboring atoms.

2.8 THE ZINCBLENDE STRUCTURE

While the diamond structure refers to the particular lattice in which all atoms are of the
same species, such as silicon or germanium the Zincblende (sphalerite) structure have
two different types of atoms in their lattice. Compound semiconductors, such as gallium
arsenide, have the Zincblende structure shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: The Zincblende (sphalerite) lattice of GaAs.

The important feature of both the diamond and the Zincblende structures is that the atoms
are joined together to form a tetrahedron. Figure 2.10 shows the basic tetrahedral
structure of GaAs in which each Gallium atom has four nearest Arsenic neighbors and
each Arsenic atom has four nearest Gallium neighbors. This figure also begins to show
the interpenetration of two sub-lattices that can be used to generate the diamond or
zincblende lattice.

15
2.9 ATOMIC BONDING

In this section, we shall look at the forces that stick atoms together to form a solid. The
interaction that occurs between atoms to form a solid and to reach the minimum total
energy depends on the type of atom or atoms involved. The type of bond, or interaction,
between atoms, then, depends on the particular atom or atoms in the crystal. If there is
not a strong bond between atoms, they will not "stick together" to create a solid. We
basically have four types of bonding which we shall discuss now.

The atoms at the two extremes of the periodic table (excepting the inert elements) tend to
lose or gain valence electrons, thus forming ions. These ions then essentially have
complete outer energy shells. The elements in group 1 of the periodic table tend to lose
their one electron and become positively charged while the elements in group V11 tend to
gain an electron and become negatively charged. These oppositely charged ions then
experience a coulombic attraction and form a bond referred to as an ionic bond. If the
ions were to get too close, a repulsive force would become dominant, so an equilibrium
distance results between these two ions. In a crystal, negatively charged ions tend to be
surrounded by positively charged ions and positively charged ions tend to be surrounded
by negatively charged ions, so a periodic array of the atoms is formed to create the lattice.
A classic example of ionic bonding is sodium chloride.

We have seen that the interaction of atoms in ionic bonding tends to form closed valence
shells. Another atomic bond that tends to achieve closed-valence energy shells is
covalent bonding, an example of which is found in the hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen
atom has one electron and needs one more electron to complete the lowest energy shell.
Covalent bonding results in electrons being shared between atoms, so that in effect the
valence energy shell of each atom is full. Atoms in group 1V of the periodic table, such
as silicon and germanium, also tend to form covalent bonds. Each of these elements has
four valence electrons and needs four more electrons to complete the valence energy
shell. If a silicon atom, for example, has four nearest neighbors, with each neighbor atom
contributing one valence electron to be shared, then the center atom will in effect have
eight electrons in its outer shell. A schematic of covalent bonding in a silicon crystal is
shown in figure 2.11.

16
 Figure 2.11: The covalent bonding in the silicon crystal.

The third major atomic bonding scheme that we shall now discuss is referred to as
metallic bonding. Group 1 elements have one valence electron. If two sodium atoms (Z
= 11), for example, are brought into close proximity, the valence electrons interact in a
way similar to that in covalent bonding. When a third sodium atom is brought into close
proximity with the first two, the valence electrons can also interact and continue to form a
bond. Solid sodium has a body-centered cubic structure, so each atom has eight nearest
neighbors with each atom sharing many valence electrons. We may think of the positive
metallic ions as being surrounded by a sea of negative electrons, the solid being held
together by the electrostatic forces. This description gives a qualitative picture of the
metallic bond.

We shall now look at the fourth type of atomic bond called Van der Waals bond. It is
the weakest of the chemical bonds. A hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule, for example, is
formed by an ionic bond. The effective center of the positive charge of the molecule is
not the same as the effective center of the negative charge. This non-symmetry in the
charge distribution results in a small electric dipole that can interact with the dipoles of
other HF molecules. With these weak interactions, solids formed by the Van der Waals
bonds have a relatively low melting temperature and in fact, most of these materials are
in gaseous form at room temperature.

17
2.10 GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

The success in fabricating very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits is a result, to a large
extent, of the development of and in improvement in the formation or growth of pure
single-crystal semiconductor materials. The high purity requirement means that extreme
care is necessary in the growth and the treatment of the material at each step of the
fabrication process. The mechanics and kinetics of crystal growth are extremely complex
and in this lecture I will describe them in only very general term.

2.10.1 GROWTH FROM A MELT

A common technique for growing single-crystal materials is called the Czochralski

method. In this technique, a small piece of single-crystal material, known as a seed, is
brought into contact with the surface of the same material in liquid phase, and then
slowly pulled from the melt. As the seed is slowly pulled, solidification occurs along the
plane between the solid-liquid interface. Usually the crystal is also rotated slowly as it is
being pulled, to provide a slight stirring action to the melt, resulting in a more uniform
temperature. Controlled amounts of specific impurity atoms, such as boron or
phosphorus, may be added to the melt so that the grown semiconductor crystal is
intentionally doped with the impurity atom. Figure 2.12 shows a schematic of the
Czochralski growth process and a silicon ingot or boule grown by this process.

Chunk

Seed
Crystal

Heaters

18
 Figure 2.12: Schematic of Czochralski growth process (Donald, 2003)

2.10.1 EPITAXIAL GROWTH

A common and versatile growth technique that is used extensively in device and
integrated circuit fabrication is epitaxial growth. Epitaxial growth is a process whereby
a thin, single-crystal layer of material is grown on the surface of a single-crystal
substrate. In the epitaxial process, the single-crystal substrate acts as the seed, although
the process takes place far below the melting temperature. When an epitaxial layer is
grown on a substrate of the same material, the process is termed homoepitaxy. Growing
silicon on a silicon substrate is one example of a homoepitaxy process. In a heteroepitaxy
process, although the substrate and epitaxial materials are not the same, the two crystal
structures should be very similar if single-crystal growth is to he obtained and if a large
number of defects are to be avoided at the epitaxial-substrate interface. Growing epitaxial
layers of the ternary alloy AlGaAs on a GaAs substrate is one example of a heteroepitaxy
process. Epitaxial growth takes many forms and we now look at some of these forms.

Liquid-phase epitaxy is a form of epitaxial growth technique applicable in a case in

which a compound of the semiconductor with another element may have a melting
temperature lower than that of the semiconductor itself. The semiconductor substrate is
held in the liquid compound and, since the temperature of the melt is lower than the
melting temperature of the substrate, the substrate does not melt. As the solution is slowly
cooled, a single semiconductor layer grows on the seed crystal. This technique is useful
in growing group Ill-V compound semiconductors.

A versatile technique for growing epitaxial layers is the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)
process. In this technique, a substrate is held in vacuum at a temperature normally in the
range of 400 to 800oC. Semiconductor and dopant atoms are then evaporated onto the
surface of the substrate. In this technique, the doping can be precisely controlled resulting
in very complex doping profiles. Complex ternary compounds, such as AIGaAs, can be
grown on substrates, such as GaAs, where abrupt changes in the crystal composition are
desired. Many layers of various types of epitaxial compositions can be grown on a
substrate in this manner. These structures are extremely beneficial in optical devices such
as laser diodes.

2.11 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have categorized solids in three: crystalline, polycrystalline and

amorphous. This depends on their crystal structure. We have defined Miller indices and

19
used them to describe the crystal surfaces and crystal plane orientations. The diamond
structure and zinc blende structure and examples of semiconductor materials in each case
have also been outlined. We have discussed the types of atomic bonds that holds atoms
together in a crystal. Discussed are; Ionic bonding, Covalent bonding, Metallic bonding
and lastly Van der Waals bonding. To end the lecture, we have looked at crystal growth
techniques such as Czochralski and epitaxial growth techniques that include Liquid-phase
epitaxy and Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).

2.11 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Singh, J. (2001). Semiconductor Devices: Basic Princip1es. New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

20
2.12 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms:

a. Lattice
b. Miller indices
c. Primitive cells
d. Unit cells
e. Crystal

2. Determine the number of atoms per unit cell in

a. face-centered cubic
b. body-centered cubic
c. diamond lattice

3. Giving examples in each case, define:

a. Diamond structure
b. Zinc blende structure

4. For a simple cubic lattice, find Miller indices for the planes below:

21
 LECTURE THREE

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICOND

3.1 INTRODUCTION

There is a large variety of semiconductors available today although for applications,

Silicon completely dominates the market. Nevertheless, other semiconductors which have
different properties have found uses in other areas. For example, Silicon cannot be used
for LEDs or LASERS while GaAs can be used. Semiconductors can be classified
according to their chemical composition. Two general classifications of semiconductors
are the elemental semiconductor materials and compound semiconductor materials.
Transition of electrons in the semiconductors may also be used to categorize them either
as direct bandgap semiconductors or indirect bandgap semiconductors. In this
lecture, I will look in details all these classes of semiconductors.

3.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Describe elemental semiconductors giving examples

Locate elemental semiconductors from Periodic Table

Explain how compound semiconductors are formed

Differentiate between binary, ternary and quaternary semiconductors giving

examples in each case

Give examples of II-VI and III-V semiconductors

Define direct bandgap and indirect bandgap semiconductors giving examples in

each case

Define wavevector, k

22
3.3 ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS

These are semiconductors that are found in group IV of the periodic table. The elemental
semiconductors are composed of single species of atoms with silicon and germanium
being the common ones. Silicon is by far the most common semiconductor used in
integrated circuits and is emphasized to a great extent in solid state physics. The figure
below shows periodic table. As can be seen, Silicon and Germanium are found in group
IV of the table.

Figure 3.1: Elements in a periodic Table

Elemental semiconductors tend to form covalent bonds. Each of these elements has four
valence electrons and needs four more electrons to complete the valence energy shell.
Considering an example with a silicon atom, it has four nearest neighbors, with each
neighbor atom contributing one valence electron to be shared. Therefore, the center atom
will in effect have eight electrons in its outer shell. A two-dimensional representation of
the covalent bonding in silicon is shown in Figure 3.2. The center atom has eight shared
valence electrons.

23
 S

S S
S

Figure 3.2: Representation of covalent bonding in the silicon crystal.

The outer silicon atoms always have valence electrons available for additional covalent
bonding. The silicon array may then be formed into an infinite crystal, with each silicon
atom having four nearest neighbors and eight shared electrons. The four nearest
neighbors in silicon forming the covalent bond correspond to the tetrahedral structure and
the diamond lattice.

3.4 COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

Compound semiconductors are formed by elements around those elemental

semiconductors. They consist of compound materials. There are numerous compound
semiconductors but they are generally formed from two, three, or four different elements
and are referred to as binary, ternary, and quaternary compounds respectively. The
most important compound semiconductors are based on Column III and Column V
elements in the Periodic Table. For this reason, these compounds are called the III–V
compound semiconductors or III–Vs. Examples of the III–V compounds are gallium
arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), aluminum arsenide (AlAs), indium arsenide
(InAs) among others. Notice that in each case the cation is a Column III element while
the anion is a Column V element. Other binary semiconductors are compounds of group
II as cations and group VI as anions. Examples include magnesium oxide (MgO), zinc
selenide (ZnS) among others. Ternary compounds can be formed using three elements
such as AlxGa1−xAs, where the subscript x represents the mole fraction of aluminum
present in the compound. Similarly, quaternary compounds can be formed in which four
elements are combined. An example of a quaternary compound semiconductor is
InxGa1−xAsyP1−y.

24
3.5 ELECTRONIC BANDS

I have illustrated in lecture two that all crystalline solids have a periodic potential which
is extremely important in understanding of their electrical conduction. There is a
fundamental result from quantum mechanics that applies to any system with a periodic
potential. Brennan, 1999 realized that for a system with a translational symmetric
potential, the electron energy levels are arranged in bands. These bands can either be
conducting or forbidden. As the name implies, a conduction band is one in which the
electrons can propagate or conduct. Conversely, a forbidden band is one in which no
conducting states exist and electrons cannot be placed into this band. In this section, we
shall look at electrical conduction of solids in light of their band structure.

In addition to the formation of energy bands as I have illustrated in the introduction, the
presence of a periodic potential introduces energy gaps in the allowed energy spectrum.
These gaps are called forbidden gaps that correspond to energy ranges wherein no
allowed electronic states exist. It is clear from above discussion that electrons within the
conduction band can propagate through the crystal and thus carry a current. Electrons
cannot be located within the forbidden band. The states below E = 0 are essentially all
filled with electrons and correspond to electrons held in chemical bonds between atoms,
and these bands are referred to as the “valence band” of energies, Ev. In the valence
band, electronic states exist but these states are not free. In other words, electrons within
the valence band are localized into bound states that are formed by the molecular bonds
between the constituent host atoms of the crystal. A completely empty band cannot
conduct a current. This should be obvious since an empty band has no carriers within it
and thus there is nothing to carry the current. The states that lay at energies greater than
band gap energy above the valence band maximum are all essentially unoccupied with
electrons, and this higher band is the “conduction band” of energies, Ec. It is true that a
completely filled energy band also cannot conduct a current. This follows from the fact
that no two electrons can simultaneously occupy the same quantum state. The general
formal statement of this is the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which applies to the class of
particles called fermions and includes electrons, protons, and neutrons. The energy
separation between the filled and empty bands is called the energy gap, Eg.

Before I end this section, I find it useful to discuss the shape of the energy bands in a
crystal. One of the basic concepts of quantum mechanics is that, fundamental particles
have a wave-particle duality. This implies that a fundamental particle like an electron for
example sometimes manifests itself as a wave and sometimes as a particle, but never
simultaneously. Therefore, an electron has a wavelength associated with it, called the de-
Broglie wavelength that accounts for its wavelike behavior. The momentum of an
electron can be described using its wavelike behavior as;

p = hk (3.1)

where h is Planck’s constant divided by 2π and k is defined as;

25
 2π
k= (3.2)
λ

λ is the electron wavelength and k is called the electron wavevector. A free electron has
only kinetic energy given by;

p2
E= (3.3)
2m

The energy-momentum relationship is called energy-band diagram. An electron moving

in the conduction band occupies one of the states on the parabola. The curvature of the
parabola is different from that for an electron in free space, corresponding to a different
mass, the electron effective mass mn. The narrower the parabola is, the smaller the
effective mass mn.

Substituting into (3.3) for p, the expression given by (3.1) becomes;

h2k 2
E= (3.4)
2m

The energy of the electron varies quadratically with the wavevector, k. The relationship
between E and k given by equation 3.4 is called a parabolic energy vs. k relationship
and is sketched in Figure 3.3.

Energy

Figure 3.3: E versus k graph

Notice that the energy vs. k diagram shown in Figure 3.3 is a parabola with vertex at E=0,
k=0. Since the electron energy varies with respect to the electron wavevector, the E(k)
relationship is very important in semiconductors. The behavior of the electron as a
function of k is referred to as the electron motion in k-space. In general, the wavevector
r
k for an electron in a crystal is a three-dimensional vector. In free space, we can replace
r
the vector k by its one-dimensional scalar magnitude, k. We can also often use this

26
scalar one-dimensional model to gain insight into the behavior of an actual
semiconductor.

Band diagrams

The principle way a semiconductor material’s electronic structure is represented in a

device is with a band diagram, which plots the band edge energies EC and EV and other
energy levels versus position x. Light absorption, with photon energy hv ≥ E g can be
depicted as a valence band electron making a transition to a conduction band state. Light
with photon energy hv ≤ E g is not absorbed and passes through the material.

As the temperature of a semiconductor increases above 0 K, a few valence band

electrons may gain enough thermal energy to break the covalent bond and jump into the
conduction band. When the negatively charged electron breaks away from its covalent
bonding position, a positively charged "empty state" is created in the original covalent
bonding position in the valence band. As the temperature further increases, more covalent
bonds are broken, more electrons jump to the conduction hand, and more positive "empty
states" are created in the valence band.

3.6 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS

In some semiconductors, when an electron makes a transition from the maximum point of
the valence band to the minimum point of the conducction band, it may only require
change in energy. Change in momentum is not required and is kept at zero. Such
semiconductors are called direct band-gap semiconductor and includes GaAs, InP,
InAs, InSb and GaN among others. The band-gap diagram in the figure below illustrates
a direct band-gap semiconductor.
E

Conduction band

Ec

Ev Eg

Valence band
27
Figure 3.4: A schematic energy-momentum diagram for a direct band-gap
semiconductor

Some semiconductors do not only require energy change greater than band gap energy
Eg, but also some momentum change for electron transition from the top point of valence
band to the bottom point of the conduction band. Since a change in momentum is
required for this transition, these semiconductors are called indirect band-gap
semiconductors. Examples of indirect semiconductors include Silicon, Germanium, GaP
and AlAs among others.

Conduction band

Ec
Eg

Ev p

Valence band

Figure 3.5: A schematic energy-momentum diagram for an indirect band-gap

semiconductor

3.7 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have discussed origin of electronic bands and categorized them into
conduction, valence and forbidden band. The electron energy-momentum relationships
were considered in connection with electrical properties. The energy-k diagrams have
also been discussed. Lastly, we have used energy band diagrams to explain direct and
indirect bandgap semiconductors.

28
3.8 ACTIVITIES

Have a look at a periodic table. Locate all the elemental semiconductors in group IV of
the table. Now look at elements in groups II, III, V and VI and state all possible
compound semiconductors formed by combination of these elements. Name all other
possible semiconductors.

3.9 FURTHER READING

1. Azaroff. L.V., and Brophy J.J (1963). Electronic Process in Material. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

2. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

3. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

4. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee (2006). Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th
edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

5. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA.

3.10 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What are elemental semiconductors? Give examples

2. Define compound semiconductors and give some examples
3. Define binary, ternary and quaternary semiconductors and give examples in each
case
4. Use energy band diagrams to differentiate between direct bandgap and indirect
bandgap semiconductors and give examples in each case
5. What is electron wavevector? How does it relate to the electron momentum?

29
 LECTURE FOUR

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In lecture three, we categorized semiconductors as either elemental, compound, direct

bandgap or indirect bandgap semiconductors. However, depending on purity of the
semiconductor, we can further categorize them as either intrinsic or extrinsic
semiconductors. There are semiconductors that are pure as they have no impurity added
in their crystal structure. In such semiconductors, their conductivity can only be enhanced
by temperature. They are called intrinsic semiconductors. Elemental and compound
semiconductors can be intrinsic semiconductors. On the other hand, some level of
impurity atoms can be added in a crystal lattice of a semiconductor in order to enhance its
conductivity. Such a process is called doping and the semiconductor so formed is called
extrinsic semiconductor. In this lecture, we shall look at how temperature and doping
levels affects the conductivities of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors respectively.

4.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

Define intrinsic semiconductors and give examples

Define Fermi energy

Describe the Fermi-Dirac distribution and explain its significance

Explain how temperature affects the electrical conductivity of intrinsic

semiconductors

Define doping

Define extrinsic semiconductors

Differentiate N-type and P-type semiconductors and explain how they are
achieved

30
4.3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

As we have seen in the introduction of this lecture, there may be pure semiconductor
crystals with no impurity atoms or defects. These are called intrinsic semiconductors. In
these semiconductors, the electrons and holes concentrations are controlled solely by
temperature. Elemental and compound semiconductors can be intrinsic semiconductors as
we have. At certain temperature, the thermal energy of the atoms may allow a small
number of the electrons to participate in the conduction process. We shall explain this
fact in the next sub-section.

4.3.1 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

For intrinsic semiconductors, as the temperature increases, the thermal energy of the
valence electrons increases, allowing more of them to breach the energy gap into the
conduction band. At room temperature, relatively few electrons have enough thermal
energy to make this jump. When an electron in an intrinsic semiconductor gets enough
thermal energy, it can go to the conduction band and leave behind a hole. This process is
called” electron-hole pair (EHP) creation” creation due to temperature.

4.3.2 INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION

As we have seen, when an electron gains enough energy to escape the electrostatic
attraction of its parent atom, it leaves behind a vacancy called a hole which may be filled
by another electron. Holes and electrons flows in opposite directions. We use Fermi-
Dirac statistics to describe the promotion of charges to other electronic states due to
thermal effects and to find the probability that an electron can be promoted to a higher
energy band. The probability that an electron occupies an electronic state with energy, E
is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function;

1
F (E) = ( E − EF ) / KT
(4.1)
1+ e

Where K is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin and EF

is the energy of the Fermi level. The Fermi energy is the energy at which the probability
of occupation of a given state is half. It is the energy corresponding to the highest filled
state at 0 K. The Fermi distribution is illustrated in figure 4.1 for different temperatures.

31
 0 K Temp.
F(E)

High Temp.

Low Temp.

ε/μ

Figure 4.1: Fermi distribution function F(E) versus ε/µ for various temperatures

As can be seen from the graph in figure 4.1, F(E) is symmetrical around the Fermi
energy, EF which is the energy state at which the probability occupation by an electron is
half. The Fermi distribution function can be approximated by simpler expressions:

F ( E ) ≅ e − ( E − EF ) / KT for E - EF > 3KT (4.2)

and
F ( E ) ≅ 1 − e − ( E − EF ) / KT for E - EF < 3KT (4.3)

Equation 4.3 is regarded as the probability that a hole occupies a given energy state.
There are a large number of allowed states in the conduction band. However, for intrinsic
semiconductor, there are not many electrons in the conduction band. Therefore, the
probability that an electron occupies one of these energy states in conduction band is
small. On the other hand, there are many allowed states in the valence band and the
probability of an electron occupying one of these energy states is nearly unity. The Fermi
level for these semiconductors is nearly the center of the bandgap as depicted in the
figure below.

32
 Electron
Energy
Conduction band

EC

EF
Ev
Valence band

Figure 4.2: Energy band diagram for intrinsic semiconductor

At the bottom of the conduction band, when E=EC, the electron density in the conduction
band is;
− ( EC − E F )
n = N C exp   (4.4)
 KT 

NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band. At room temperature (300 K),
NC is 2.86x1019 cm-3 for silicon and 4.7x1017 cm-3 of gallium arsenide.

And the hole density at the valence band is;

− ( E F − EV )
p = N v exp   (4.5)
 KT 

Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band. At room temperature (300 K), Nv
is 2.66x1019 cm-3 for silicon and 7.0x1018 cm-3 of gallium arsenide.

For the intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons per unit volume in the
conduction band (n) is equal to the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band
(p). This is called intrinsic carrier concentration signified by;

− EG
n = p = ni = N C NV exp   (4.6)
 2 KT 

Where EG-Energy bandgap in eV

K-Boltzman’s constant=8.617x10-5 eV/K
T-Absolute temperature in Kelvin
NC,, NV and NG are material’s constant that depends on its temperature
ni- carrier density (at 300 K, for silicon, ni=9.65x109 cm-3 and 2.25x106 cm-3 for
GaAs)
33
It is easy to see that equation 4.6 has been derived from the expression below;

− EG
np = ni = N C NV exp  
2
(4.7)
 2 KT 

4.4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Selective impurities can be added to a pure material, and this forms what is called an
extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities is called doping. An
extrinsic semiconductor is a doped semiconductor. We can get two types of extrinsic
material as we will discuss below.

4.4.1 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

The dopant atoms added to the semiconductor crystal in this case are donor atoms. For
group IV element such as silicon, we can use phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) or antimony
(Sb) as donors. These are column V elements, with five electrons in their outermost shell.
When these atoms are included in the silicon crystal, one of the electrons in this shell can
easily jump to the conduction band, leaving a positively charged atom behind. This
process is sometimes called “activation” or “ionization” of the donor atoms. The
positively charged donor atom that is left behind after ionization is immobile and does
not contribute to conduction. The electron leaving the atom by ionization does, and is
counted in the electron concentration n. Because the activation energy is low, at room
temperature almost all of the donor atoms included in the crystal will give an electron to
the conduction band. So if ND is the donor concentration, for an n-type material at
equilibrium:

 1 
n ≈ ND  3  (4.8)
 cm 

From equation 4.4 and 4.1, we can obtain the Fermi level in terms of the effective density
of states NC and the donor concentration ND as:

EC − E F = kT ln ( N C / N D ) (4.9)

As can be observed from the energy band diagram below, for an N-type semiconductor,
the Fermi level shifts upwards towards the conduction band.

34
 Electron
Energy
Conduction band

EC
EF

Ev
Valence band

Figure 4.3: Energy band diagram for N-type semiconductor

4.4.2 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

The dopant atoms in this case are acceptor atoms. For silicon, we can use Boron (B),
Aluminum (Al) and Gallium (Ga) as acceptors. These are column III elements, with three
electrons in their outermost shell. When these atoms are included in the silicon crystal,
one of the electrons in the silicon valence band can easily jump to the valence shell of
one of the acceptor atoms, leaving a hole behind and making the acceptor atom
negatively charged. The negatively charged acceptor atom after an electron joins its
valence shell is immobile and does not contribute to conduction. The hole left behind by
that electron does, and is counted in the hole concentration p. Because the activation
energy is low at room temperature, almost all of the acceptor atoms included in the
crystal will accept an electron from the valence band. So if NA is the acceptor
concentration, for a p-type material at equilibrium and in case there is complete
ionization, the concentration of holes is:

 1 
p ≈ NA 3  (4.10)
 cm 

Similarly, using equation 4.5 and 4.10, we can obtain the Fermi level in terms of the
effective density of states in the valence band NV and the donor concentration NA as:

E F − EV = kT ln( NV / N A ) (4.11)

For a P-type semiconductor, the Fermi level shifts downwards towards the valence band
as depicted in figure 4.4.

35
 Electron
Energy
Conduction band
EC

EF
Ev
Valence band

Figure 4.4: Energy band diagram for P-type semiconductor

4.5 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have seen that intrinsic semiconductor materials are pure
semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductor materials are impure semiconductors. N-
type semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity to create free electrons. Such a
material is conductive. The electron is the majority carrier. We have also seen that P-type
semiconductor, doped with a trivalent impurity, has an abundance of free holes. These
are positive charge carriers. The P-type material is conductive. The hole is the majority
carrier. Most semiconductors are based on elements from group IVA of the periodic
table, silicon being the most prevalent.

4.6 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA.

36
4.7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What are intrinsic semiconductors?

2. Define the term doping? Explain how it modifies conductivity in semiconductors.
3. What are extrinsic semiconductors?
4. Give two types of extrinsic semiconductors and explain briefly how they are
developed.
5. Name three acceptor and three donor materials for doping semiconductors.
6. What is a hole? Explain how they move in an intrinsic semiconductor.
7. Silicon ingot is doped with 1x1017 phosphorus atoms/cm3. Find:
(i) The carrier concentration
(ii) The Fermi level at room temperature (300 K)

37
 LECTURE FIVE

ELECTRICAL TRANSPORT IN SEMICONDUCTORS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the densities of charged particles is important towards an understanding of

the electrical properties of a semiconductor material. The net flow of the electrons and
holes in a semiconductor will generate currents. The process by which these charged
particles move is called transport. In this lecture, I will consider the two basic transport
mechanisms in a semiconductor crystal: Movement of charge due to electric fields called
drift and the flow of charge due to density gradients called diffusion. I should mention in
passing, that temperature gradients in a semiconductor can also lead to carrier movement.
However, as the semiconductor device size becomes smaller, this effect can usually be
ignored. The carrier transport phenomena are the foundation for finally determining the
current-voltage characteristics of semiconductor devices.

5.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

Define the following terms: Electric transport, carrier drift, carrier diffusion

Explain current flow in semiconductor due to electric fields

Explain electric conduction due to density gradients

Perform simple calculations on current density, J and carrier mobility, µ

Describe Hall Effect

Define the terms resistivity and conductivity

Explain the resistivity measurement by four point probe technique

5.3 DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY

Before I look at current density, it is worth to note that an electric field applied to a
semiconductor will produce a force on electrons and holes so that they will experience a
net acceleration and net movement, provided that there are available energy states in the
conduction and valence bands. This net movement of charges due to an electric field is

38
called drift. The net drift of charge gives rise to a drift current. Current is due to the net
flow of charge. If we had a collection of positively charged ions with a volume density N
(cm3) and an average drift velocity Vd (cm/s), then the drift current density would be
given by equation 5.1.

J = qNVd . (5.1)

If we have a positive volume charge density p moving at an average drift velocity Vd, the
drift current density is given by;

J = ρVd (5.2)

where J is in units of C/cm2-s or amps/cm2.

5.3.1 THE DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO HOLES

If the volume charge density is due to positively charged holes, then;

J p = (ep )Vdp (5.3)

where Jp, is the drift current density due to holes and Vdp, is the average drift velocity of
the holes. The equation of motion of a positively charged hole in the presence of an
electric field is;
F = m* p a = eE (5.4)

where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge, a is the acceleration, E is the electric
field, and m* is the effective mass of the hole. If the electric field is constant, then we
expect the velocity to increase linearly with time. However, charged particles in a
semiconductor are involved in collisions with ionized impurity atoms and with thermally
vibrating lattice atoms. These collisions, or scattering events, alter the velocity
characteristics of the particle.

As the holes accelerates in a crystal due to the electric field, the velocity increases. When
the charged particle collides with an atom in the crystal, for example, the particle loses
most, or all, of its energy. The particle will again begin to accelerate and gain energy
until it is again involved in a scattering process. This continues over and over again.
Throughout this process, the particle will gain an average drift velocity which, for low
electric fields, is directly proportional to the electric field. We may then write

39
 Vdp = µ p E (5.5)

where µ p , is the proportionality factor and is called the hole mobility. The mobility is an
important parameter of the semiconductor since it describes how well a particle will
move due to an electric field. The unit of mobility is usually expressed in terms of cm2/V-
s.

Since J p = (ep )Vdp , this can now be expressed as

J p = eµ p pE (5.6)

Note: The drift current due to holes is in the same direction as the applied electric field.

5.3.2 THE DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO ELECTRONS

The same discussion of drift current about holes also applies to electrons.

J n = (−en)Vdn (5.7)

where J n is the drift current density due to electrons and Vdn is the average drift velocity
of electrons. The net charge density of electrons is negative. The average drift velocity of
an electron is also proportional to the electric field for small fields. However, since the
electron is negatively charged, the net direction of the electrons is opposite to the electric
field direction. We can then write;

Vdn = − µ n E . (5.8)

This equation may then be written as;

J n = (−en) ( − µ n E )= eµ n nE ) (5.9)

The conventional drift current due to electrons is also in the same direction as the applied
electric field even though the electron movement is in the opposite direction. Since both
electrons and holes contribute to the drift current, the total drift current is the sum of the
individual electron and hole drift current densities as shown in the equation 5.10.

J drift = e( µ p p + µ n n) E (5.10)

40
5.4 CONDUCTIVITY

We have seen in section 5.3.2 that drift current density is given by J drift = e( µ p p + µ n n) E .
This can be expressed as J drift = σE where σ is called conductivity of the semiconductor
material.

σ = e( µ p p + µ n n) (5.11)

Generally, in extrinsic semiconductors, only one of the components in the equation above
is significant because of many orders of magnitude difference between the two carrier
densities. Therefore, the equation above can reduce to;

σ = eµ p p (5.12)

for a p-type semiconductor since p>>n and;

σ = eµ n n (5.13)

for an n-type semiconductor since n>>p

The conductivity is given in units of (Ω-cm)-1 and is a function of the electron and hole
concentrations and mobilities. Since mobilities are functions of impurity concentration,
conductivity, then is an extended function of impurity concentration.

5.5 RESISTIVITY

The reciprocal of conductivity is conductivity, which is denoted by p. The unit of

resistivity is ohm-cm.

1 1
ρ= = (5.14)
σ e( µ p p + µ n n )

For a p-type semiconductor,

1 1
ρ= = (5.15)
σ eµ p p

41
And for a n-type semiconductor,

1 1
ρ= = (5.16)
σ eµ n n

Electric resistance is a function of resistivity. To show this, consider a bar of

semiconductor material as shown in Figure 5.1 with a voltage applied.

Figure 5.1: Bar of semiconductor material

If this voltage produces a current I, then we can write

I
J= (5.17)
A
And,
V
E= . (5.18)
L

I V 
But since J = σE , = σ   . It is easy to see that;
A L

 L 
V =   I =IR (5.19)
 σA 

L 1
R= but since ρ = as we have seen,
σA σ

42
 ρL
R= (5.20)
A

Equation 5.20 is Ohm’s law for a semiconductor. The resistance is a function of

resistivity, or conductivity, as well as the geometry of the semiconductor.

5.5.1 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY

Semiconductor material research and device testing often involve determining the
resistivity and Hall mobility of a sample. The resistivity of semiconductor material is
primarily dependent on the bulk doping. In a device, the resistivity can affect the
capacitance, the series resistance, and the threshold voltage. The resistivity of the
semiconductor is often determined using a four-point probe technique. With a four-
probe, or Kelvin, technique, two of the probes are used to source current and the other
two probes are used to measure voltage. Using four probes eliminates measurement
errors due to the probe resistance, the spreading resistance under each probe, and the
contact resistance between each metal probe and the semiconductor material. Because a
high impedance voltmeter draws little current, the voltage drops across the probe
resistance, spreading resistance, and contact resistance are very small. Two common
Kelvin techniques for determining the resistivity of a semiconductor material are the
four-point collinear probe method and the van der Pauw method. In this lecture, we
will restrict ourselves to the former method. This technique involves bringing four
equally spaced probes in contact with a material of unknown resistance. The probe array
is placed in the center of the material as shown in the figure 5.2.

+ -
V
S S S

t Thin film wafer

Figure 5.2: A schematic diagram of collinear four point probe method

43
The two outer probes are used for sourcing current and the two inner probes are used for
measuring the resulting voltage drop across the surface of the sample. Ammeters and
voltmeters can be used for measuring a sourced current and sensed voltage respectively
or a SourceMeter unit with both sourcing and sensing capabilities can be used. The
volume resistivity can then be calculated using the values of current, I and voltage, V
measured using the equation below:

π V 
ρv = t  k
ln 2  I  (5.21)

where: ρ = volume resistivity (Ω-cm)

V = the measured voltage (volts)
I = the source current (amperes)
t = the sample thickness (cm)
k = correction factor

5.5.2 HALL MEASUREMENTS

When a conducting material that is under electrical conduction is subjected to a magnetic

field, an electric field is developed. This electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic
field and the current direction. The strength of the electric field depends upon the strength
of the magnetic field and the amount of current passing through the material. This effect
is called Hall Effect, named after its discoverer, E.H.Hall in 1879. Hall was able to
determine for the first time the sign of charge carriers in a conductor. Even today, Hall
Effect measurements continue to be a useful technique for characterizing the electrical
transport properties of metals and semiconductors. This technique is very popular and is
widely used in almost all the laboratories to quantify two parameters of importance,
namely, carrier concentration (n or p) and mobility, µ.

The Hall Effect Experiment

The basic setup for studying the Hall Effect is shown in the figure below: A thin strip
(thickness δ) of the material to be studied is placed in a magnetic field B oriented at right
angles to the strip.

44
 Figure 5.3: Hall Effect geometry

A current I is arranged to flow through the strip from left to right, and the voltage
difference between the top and bottom is measured. Assuming the voltmeter probes are
vertically aligned, the voltage difference is zero when B = 0. The current I flows in
response to an applied electric field, with its direction established by convention.
However, on the microscopic scale, I is the result of either positive charges moving in the
direction of I, or negative charges moving backwards. In either case, the magnetic
Lorentz force Flor= qv ×B causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since charge cannot leave
the top or bottom of the strip, a vertical charge imbalance builds up in the strip. This
charge imbalance produces a vertical electric field which counteracts the magnetic force,
and a steady-state situation is reached. The vertical electric field can be measured as a
transverse potential difference on the voltmeter. Suppose now that the charge carriers
where electrons (q = −e), in this case negative charge accumulates on the strip’s top so
the voltmeter would read a negative potential difference. Alternately, should the carriers
be holes (q = +e) positive voltage is measured by the voltmeter.

5.6 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have looked at current flow in a semiconductor due to electric field and
due to density gradients. We have also discussed drift current due to holes and due to
electrons. These have been given in terms of drift velocity and carrier mobility. The
electrical conductivity and resistivity have also been discussed. Lastly, we have looked at
the four point technique as applied to resistivity and Hall Effect measurement.

5.7 ACTIVITIES
Explore areas where Hall Effect is applicable in everyday life. Cite these areas and
explain briefly how they work.

45
5.8 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Kano, K. Semi-conductor Devices (1998). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

3. Kittel, C. (1993). Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th edition, Berlin: Springer-
Verlag.

4. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

5. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

6. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA.

46
5.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms: Carrier mobility, Conductivity, Resistivity, Carrier

concentration and Charge density

2. What is Hall Effect? How does it relate to mechanical force exerted by a magnetic
field?

3. Explain briefly the applications of Hall effect

4. Name three acceptor and three donor materials for doping of semiconductors

5. Describe the four point probe technique

6. A sample of N-type semiconductor has a resistivity of 2.0x10-1 ohm-m. The

mobility of the electrons through a separate experiment was found to be 0.01
m2V-1s-1. Find the number of electron carriers per m3.

7. Find the room temperature resistivity of an n-type silicon doped with 1015
phosphorus atoms/cm3. Take µ n=1300 cm2/Vs.

8. A conduction wire has a resistivity of 1.54x10-8 ohm-meter and it has carrier

concentration of 5.8x1028/m3. Calculate;

(a) Conductivity

(b) Electron mobility

9. A sample of Si is doped with 1017 phosphorus atoms/cm3. Given that W=500 µm,
A=0.0025 cm2, I=1 mA and BZ=1x10-4 Wb/cm2, find the Hall voltage.

10. Find the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at 27oC for which N=3x1024 m-3,
Eg=1.1 eV, µe=0.14m2/V-s and µh=0.05m2/V-s. Also find the conductivity and the
resistivity.

47
 LECTURE SIX

P-N JUNCTIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Most semiconductor devices contain at least one junction between p-type and n-type
semiconductor regions. Semiconductor device characteristics and operation are intimately
connected to these p-n junctions, so considerable attention is devoted initially to this
basic device. The p-n junction diode itself provides characteristics that are used in
rectifiers and switching circuits. In addition, the analysis of the p-n junction device
establishes some basic terminology and concepts that are used in the discussion of other
semiconductor devices in the later lectures. Understanding the Physics of the p-n junction
is, therefore, an important step in the study of semiconductor devices. The electrostatics
of the p-n junction is considered in this lecture and the current-voltage characteristics of
the p-n junction diode are developed in the lecture seven.

6.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Define a P-N junction

Describe how a P-N junction is formed

Explain the formation of depletion layer in P-N junction

Describe the biasing in P-N junction

Explain the condition for a P-N junction to conduct

Distinguish between zener and avalanche breakdown of a P-N junction

6.3 THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE P-N JUNCTION

A P-N junction is a single-crystal semiconductor material in which one region is doped

with acceptor impurity atoms to form the p-region and the adjacent region is doped with
donor atoms to form the N- region. The interface separating the N and P regions is
referred to as the metallurgical junction. Figure 6.1 shows a schematic of a P-N
junction.

48
 N-type P-type

Metallurgical junction

Figure 6.1: Schematic of a P-N junction.

At the junction, holes diffuse to the N-region while the electrons diffuse to the P-region
as depicted below.

Na

Nd
Holes diffuse

Electrons diffuse

Figure 6.2: Diffusion of holes and electrons across a P-N junction.

A P-N junction across which no external voltage is connected is known as unbiased P-N
junction. For simplicity, I will consider a step junction in which the doping concentration
is uniform in each region and there is an abrupt change in doping at the junction. Initially,
at the metallurgical junction, there is a very large density gradient in both the electron and
hole concentrations. Majority carrier electrons in the N-region will begin diffusing into
the P-region and majority carrier holes in the P-region will begin diffusing into the N-
region. If we assume there are no external connections to the semiconductor, then this
diffusion process cannot continue indefinitely. As electrons diffuse from the N-region,
positively charged donor atoms are left behind. Similarly, as holes diffuse from the P-
region, they uncover negatively charged acceptor atoms. The net positive and negative

49
charges in the N and P-regions induce an electric field in the region near the metallurgical
junction, in the direction from the positive to the negative charge, or from the N to the P-
region.

The net positively and negatively charged regions are shown in the figure 6.3. These two
regions are referred to as the space charge region.

Na negative Nd positive
charge charge

--- - -- - - +++++++
------- +++++++
N P
- --- - +++++++

Space charge

region

Figure 6.3: P-N junction showing space charge region

Essentially, all electrons and holes are swept out of the space charge region by the
electric field. Since the space charge region is depleted of any mobile charge, this region
is also referred to as the depletion region: The two terms; space charge region and
depletion region will be used interchangeably in the remaining parts of this course.
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the
space charge region. We can think of a density gradient as producing a "diffusion force"
that acts on the majority carriers. These diffusion forces, acting on the electrons and holes
at the edges of the space charge region. The electric field in the space charge region
produces another force on the electrons and holes which is in the opposite direction to the
diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and
the E-field force exactly balance each other.

As we have seen, the separation of charges at the P-N junction constitutes a potential
barrier. This potential barrier must be overcome by an external voltage source to make
the junction conduct. The formation of the junction and potential barrier happens during
the manufacturing process. The magnitude of the potential barrier is a function of the
materials used in manufacturing; for example silicon P-N junctions have a higher
potential barrier than germanium junctions.

50
6.4 FOWARD BIASING OF THE P-N JUNCTION

If a battery is arranged so that the negative terminal supplies electrons to the N-type
material, these electrons diffuse toward the junction. The positive terminal removes
electrons from the P-type semiconductor, creating holes that diffuse toward the junction.
If the battery voltage is great enough to overcome the junction potential (0.6V in Si), the
N-type electrons and P-holes combine annihilating each other. This frees up space within
the lattice for more carriers to flow towards the junction. Thus, currents of N-type and P-
type majority carriers flow towards the junction. The recombination at the junction
allows a battery current to flow through the P-N junction diode. Such a junction is said to
be forward biased. Schematic of forward biased P-N junction are shown in figure 6.4.

P-type N-type

+
+
+
+

Figure 6.4 (a): Forward biased P-N junction

Figure 6.4 (b): Schematic of a forward biased P-N junction

The barrier potential of the depletion layer can be seen as a small battery which opposes
the external d.c. voltage. The junction does not permit the current to flow until the
external bias overcomes the barrier potential. For example, silicon does not conduct as
long as the applied external potential is below 0.7 V and for germanium, 0.3 V.

51
6.5 REVERSE BIASING OF THE P-N JUNCTION

If the battery polarity is now reverse biased, the majority carriers are attracted away from
the junction toward the battery terminals. The positive battery terminal attracts N-type
electrons majority carriers away from the junction. The negative terminal attracts P-type
majority carriers, holes away from the junction. This increases the thickness of the non-
conducting depletion region. There is no recombination of majority carriers; thus, no
conduction. This arrangement of battery polarity is called reverse bias as shown in
figure.

N P

Figure 6.5 (a): Reverse biased P-N junction

Figure 6.5 (b): Schematic of a reverse biased P-N junction

We shall now look at some terms associated with reverse biased P-N junction;

52
6.5.1 REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT

As I have discussed above, the reverse biased P-N junction practically allows no current
flow due to majority carriers. However, a small amount of current does flow due to the
diffusion of the minority carriers across the junction. The minority carriers are the
electron-hole pairs generated throughout the semiconductor material as a result of
thermal energy. The current so produced is called reverse saturation current (Is) or
leakage current. This current is independent of the applied bias voltage. If the reverse
bias voltage is increased to a large value, the current across the junction increases
abruptly. The voltage at which this occurs is called breakdown voltage. The crystal
structure of the semiconductor breaks down at this voltage. Junction breakdown due to
increase in reverse bias is caused by two processes as we will discuss below.

6.5.2 ZENER BREAKDOWN

The breakdown here occurs in junctions which are heavily doped. These junctions have a
narrow depletion layer. When the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field at the
junction also increases. A strong electric field causes covalent bond to break from the
crystal structure hence a large number of minority carriers are generated causing a large
current across the junction.

6.5.3 AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

The increased reverse voltage increases the amount of energy imparted to minority
carriers, as they diffuse across the junction. As the reverse voltage is increased further,
the minority carriers acquire a large amount of energy (or momentum) and collide with
the semiconductor atoms within the crystal structure. They then impart sufficient energy
to break covalent bonds and hence generate additional carriers which pick up energy
from the applied voltage and generate still more carriers. The reverse current increases
abruptly.

6.6 SUMMARY

As we have seen in this lecture, P-N junctions are fabricated from a monocrystalline
piece of semiconductor with both a P-type and N-type region in proximity at a junction.
The transfer of electrons from the N-side of the junction to holes annihilated on the P-
side of the junction produces a barrier voltage. This is 0.6 to 0.7 V in silicon, and varies
with other semiconductors. A forward biased P-N junction conducts current once the

53
barrier voltage is overcome. The external applied potential forces majority carriers
toward the junction where recombination takes place, allowing current flow. A reverse
biased P-N junction conducts almost no current. The applied reverse bias attracts
majority carriers away from the junction. This increases the thickness of the non-
conducting depletion region. We have also looked at a reverse biasing of a P-N junction
and explained what is meant by zener and avalanche breakdown.

6.7 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA.

5.

6.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is P-N junction?

2. Describe why and how the space charge region is formed.
3. Draw the energy band diagram of a zero-biased and reverse-biased P-N junction.
4. Define and derive the expression of the built-in potential barrier voltage.
5. Differentiate between forward and reverse bias in a P-N junction
6. What is leakage current of a P-N junction?
7. What is meant by zener and avalanche breakdown? What factors do they depend
on?

54
 LECTURE SEVEN

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

7.1 INTRODUCTION

In the last lecture, we discussed the electrostatics of the P-N junction in thermal
equilibrium, first under forward bias and then under reverse bias. In this lecture, I will
consider the P-N junction with a forward-bias voltage applied and will determine the
current-voltage characteristics. It is important to note that the potential barrier of the P-N
junction is lowered when a forward bias voltage is applied, allowing electrons and holes
to flow across the space charge region. When holes flow from the P-region across the
space charge region into the N-region, they become excess minority carrier holes.
Likewise, when electrons from the N-region flow across the space charge region into the
P-region, they become excess minority carrier electrons and are subject to these same
processes. When a sufficiently large reverse-bias voltage is applied across a P-N junction,
breakdown can occur, producing a large reverse-bias current in the junction, which can
cause heating effects and catastrophic failure of the diode. Zener diodes, however, are
designed to operate in the breakdown region. In this lecture, we will consider junction
breakdown, switching transients and the tunnel diode in our discussion.

7.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

Define a semiconductor diode

Describe semiconductor diode biasing

Describe the diode V-I characteristics curve

State various application areas of general purpose diodes

7.3 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE AS A P-N JUNCTION

A semiconductor diode is a device that conducts current in one direction only. It is the
electrical equivalent of a hydraulic check valve. The semiconductor diode has the
following characteristics:
A diode is a two-layer semiconductor consisting of an Anode comprised of P-Type
semiconductor material and a Cathode which is made of N-Type semiconductor

55
material. The P-Type material contains charge carriers which are of a positive polarity
and are known as holes. In the N-Type material the charge carriers are electrons which
are negative in polarity.

Anode Cathode
(a)

(b)

Figure 7.1: Symbol (a) and actual appearance of a P-N junction diode

When a semiconductor diode is manufactured, the P-Type and N-Type materials are
adjacent to one another creating a P-N Junction.

7.4 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE BIASING

Biasing refers to the application of an external voltage to a semiconductor diode. There

are two ways a P-N junction can be biased. A forward bias results in current flow through
the diode (diode conducts). To forward bias a diode, a positive voltage is applied to the
Anode lead (which connects to P-Type material) and the negative voltage is applied to
the Cathode lead (which connects to N-Type material). A reverse bias results in no
current flow through the diode (diode blocks). A diode is reverse biased when the Anode
lead is made negative and the Cathode lead is made positive.

7.5 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A P-N JUNCTION DIODE

It is a graph between the voltage applied across the terminals of the device and the
current that flows through it. When the potential drops across a P-N junction diode and
corresponding currents along it when forward biased and then reverse biased are
measured and these values plotted, V-I characteristics curves as shown in figure 7.2 are
obtained. We shall now discuss these curves in details and underscore their significance.

56
 Figure 7.2: V-I characteristics of a typical diode.

The graph can be divided into two parts namely forward characteristics and reverse
characteristics.

7.5.1 FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS.

In forward bias characteristics, there is no diode current until some forward voltage is
reached. This is because the external applied voltage is being opposed by the junction
voltage as we have seen. However, as voltage is increased beyond some value, the diode
current increases rapidly. The voltage at which the diode starts conducting is called knee
voltage, cu-in voltage or threshold voltage. These terms can be used interchangeably
and should not worry you.

7.5.2 REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS.

From the graph in figure 7.2, it can be observed that when the applied reverse voltage is
below the breakdown voltage, the diode current is small and remains constant. This value
of current is called reverse saturation current (Io). When the reverse voltage is
increased to sufficiently large value, the diode reverse current increases rapidly. The
reverse voltage at which this happens is known as the breakdown voltage (VB) of the
diode.

57
7.6 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION

This is a mathematical equation that describes the forward and reverse characteristics of a
semiconductor diode. The diode current equation is given by:

I = I o (e v /(η .vT ) −1 ) (7.1)

Where;
I-Forward or reverse diode current
Io-Reverse saturation current
e-euler’s constant ~2.718281828
V-External voltage
η -Non-linearity or emission constant
VT-Volt-equivalent of temperature which is approximately 26 mV at room temperature
(300 K)

Note: VT is given by T/11600 where T is absolute temperature.

11600=charge of an electron/Boltzman’s constant

7.7 DIODE APPLICATIONS

Since a diode conducts well in one direction and poorly in the reverse direction makes it
very useful in a number of applications some of which are:
a) As rectifiers or power diodes in d.c. power supplies
b) As signal diodes in communication circuits
c) As zener diodes in voltage stabilizing circuits
d) As varactor diodes in radio and TV receivers
e) As a switch in logic circuits used in computers

7.8 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have seen that a diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way
valve for current. When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode
allows current, the diode is said to be forward-biased and that when voltage is applied
across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the diode is said to be
reverse-biased. Avalanche breakdown occurs when a sufficiently large reverse-bias
voltage is applied to the P-N junction. A large reverse-bias current may then be induced
in the P-N junction.

58
7.9 ACTIVITIES

Investigate how the alternating current is rectified in mobile phone power supply. How
many rectifier diodes are used to achieve this rectification? Obtain a rectifier diode from
a mobile phone power supply. Study it carefully. Can you tell its anode and cathode?
Connect the terminal near the white strip to a negative terminal of an ohmmeter. Does the
ohmmeter conduct? Now interchange the terminals. What do you observe? Make your
conclusions.

7.10 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

7.11 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is a P-N junction diode?

2. Explain the possible biasing of a junction diode in a circuit.
3. Silicon diode has a saturation current of 0.01 µA at a room temperature of 300 K.
Find the saturation current at 400 K.
4. Explain how full wave rectification is achieved using two diodes and using four
diodes.
5. Determine the germanium P-N junction diode current for the forward bias voltage
of 0.25V at temperature of 500 K with reverse saturation current of 1 mA.
6. Determine the germanium P-N junction diode current for the forward bias voltage
of 0.25 V at room temperature of 26oC with reverse saturation current equal to 2
mA. Take η=2.
59
 LECTURE EIGHT

SPECIAL PURPOSE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In the lecture seven, we discussed rectifier diodes and their applications. These diodes are
also called general purpose diodes. However, there are numerous diode technologies.
Now I shall discuss several other types of diodes used for specific purposes. Such diodes
include zener diodes, PIN diode, IMPATT diode, Gunn diode, Shockley diode, varactor,
schottky, tunnel, step-recovery, photodiode and light emitting diodes among others not
mentioned. In this lecture I shall discuss zener diodes, schottky diodes and varactor
diodes.

8.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Describe how LEDs are fabricated

Explain the working principles of LEDs

Identify LED terminals

Outline the V-I characteristics of zener diode

Explain the operation and characteristics of tunnel diodes

8.3 ZENER DIODES

It is a special type of diode that can handle breakdown without failing completely. It is
also called voltage-reference or voltage regulator. A schematic symbol of a P-N diode
is shown in figure 8.1.

Anode Cathode

Figure 8.1: Circuit symbol of a zener diode

60
When forward-biased, zener diodes behave much the same as standard rectifying diodes:
they have a forward voltage drop which follows the diode equation and is about 0.7 volts.
In reverse-bias mode, they do not conduct until the applied voltage reaches or exceeds the
so called zener voltage, at which point the diode is able to conduct substantial current,
and in doing so will try to limit the voltage dropped across it to that of zener voltage
point. So long as the power dissipated by this reverse current does not exceed the diode's
thermal limits, the diode will not be harmed. Zener diodes are manufactured with zener
voltages ranging anywhere from a few volts to hundreds of volts. This zener voltage
changes slightly with temperature. The diode is also sensitive to temperature. Excessive
temperature will destroy a zener diode. The zener breakdown occurs when the electric
field across the junction, produced due to reverse voltage, is sufficiently high. This
electric field exerts a force on the electrons in the outermost shell. This force is so high
that the electrons are pulled away from their parent nuclei and becomes free carriers.
These diodes are used as voltage regulator, as a fixed reference voltage in transistor
biasing circuits, as a peak clippers or limiters in wave-shaping circuits and for meter
protection against damage from accidental applications.

8.4 SCHOTTKY DIODES

Schottky diodes are constructed by joining a doped semiconductor usually N-type with a
metal usually gold, silver or platinum rather than a P-N semiconductor junction. It is also
known as hot-carrier diodes. The figure below shows a schematic symbol of a Schottky
diode.

Anode Cathode

Figure 8.2: Circuit symbol of a schottky diode

These diodes are characterized by fast switching times (low reverse-recovery time), low
forward voltage drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4 volts for a metal-silicon junction), and low
junction capacitance. Because of this, it can be operated at much higher frequencies than
P-N junction diodes. The reduced junction capacitance results into its much faster
switching time. Due to this, Schottky diode technology finds broad application in high-
speed computer circuits, where the fast switching time equates to high speed capability,
and the low forward voltage drop equates to less power dissipation when conducting.
Other application areas include rectifying very high frequency signals, use in clipping

61
and clamping circuits, use in mixing and detecting circuits and use in low power supply
circuits among others.

8.5 VARACTOR DIODES

It is basically a reverse biased P-N junction which utilizes the inherent capacitance of the
depletion layer. It is also called varicap, voltcap or tunning diode. It is used as a voltage
variable capacitor. Figure 8.3 is schematic symbol of a varactor diode.

Anode Cathode

Figure 8.3: Circuit symbol of a Varactor diode

When the reverse bias voltage increases, the depletion layer widens. This increases the
dielectric thickness, which in turn, reduces the capacitance. The converse is true when the
reverse voltage is now decreased. Some varicap diodes may be referred to as abrupt,
hyper-abrupt, or super-hyper abrupt. These refer to the change in junction capacitance
with changing reverse bias as being abrupt or hyper-abrupt, or super-hyper abrupt. These
diodes offer a relatively large change in capacitance. This is useful when oscillators or
filters are swept over a large frequency range. These diodes are majorly used in tuned
circuits.

8.6 TUNNEL DIODES

Tunnel diodes exploit a strange quantum phenomenon called resonant tunneling to

provide negative resistance forward-bias characteristics. The schematic symbol for the
tunnel diode is shown below.

Anode Cathode

Figure 8.4: Circuit symbol of a tunnel diode

When a small forward-bias voltage is applied across a tunnel diode, it begins to conduct
current. As the voltage is increased, the current increases and reaches a peak value called

62
the peak current (IP). If the voltage is increased a little more, the current actually begins
to decrease until it reaches a low point called the valley current (IV). If the voltage is
increased further yet, the current begins to increase again, this time without decreasing
into another valley as depicted in the graph in figure 8.5.

Forward

Current

Ip

Iv

Vp Vv Forward Voltage

Figure 8.5: I-V graph of a tunnel diode

8.7 DIODES FOR OPTOELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS

Some devices produce light or respond to light. These are called optoelectronic devices.
Devices that produce light include LEDs while semiconductor devices that respond to
light include photodiodes, photoconductive cells, photovoltaic cells, LASER diodes
among others. In this lecture, I shall discuss these outlined optoelectronic diodes and
briefly look at their application areas.

8.7.1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)

It is a P-N junction diode which emits light when forward-biased. The emitted light may
be visible or invisible. In a forward biased LED, the recombination of electrons and holes
in the active region yields photons. This process is known as electroluminescence. To
give off photons, the potential barrier through which the electrons fall must be higher
than for the diode. The forward diode drop can range to a few volts for some color LEDs.

Anode

Cathode

(a) (b)

63
 Figure 8.6 :LED, Light Emitting Diode: (a) schematic symbol. (b) Flat side and
short lead of device correspond to cathode.

Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus
(called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common
LEDs manufactured. By altering the chemical constituency of the P-N junction, different
colors may be obtained. Some of the currently available colors other than red are green,
blue, and infra-red (invisible light at a frequency lower than red). Other colors may be
obtained by combining two or more primary-color (red, green, and blue) LEDs together
in the same package, sharing the same optical lens. For instance, a yellow LED may be
made by merging a red LED with a green LED. LEDs can sense light. Typically, LEDs
have much larger forward voltage drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6
volts to over 3 volts, depending on the color.

Note: It is important to note that LEDs generate a small voltage when exposed to light,
much like a solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety
of light-sensing circuits.

There are numerous application areas of LEDs. Some uses include:

1. For indicating power ON and OFF conditions

2. Used in 7-segment, 16 segment and dot matrix displays

3. Used in optical switching

4. Used in burglar alarm systems

5. Used for image sensing circuits in picturephon

8.7.2 PHOTODIODES

A photodiode is a diode optimized to produce an electron current flow in response to

irradiation by ultraviolet, visible, or infrared light. Silicon is most often used
semiconductor to fabricate photodiodes; though, germanium and gallium arsenide can be
used. The junction through which light enters the semiconductor must be thin enough to
pass most of the light on to the active region (depletion region) where light is converted
to electron hole pairs. The figure below shows a schematic of a photodiode.

64
 Figure 8.7: A schematic symbol of a photodiode

The diode operates in a reverse bias. The reverse current increases with the light intensity
of the P-N junction of the photodiode. The reverse current is almost negligible when
there is no light falling on the photodiode. This reverse current is called dark current.
An increase in light intensity produces an increase in reverse current for a given amount
of reverse voltage.

Working

Light enters the top of the photodiode through a thin top P-type layer and allows most
photons to pass into the depletion region where electron-hole pairs are formed. The
electric field across the depletion region due to the built in diode potential causes
electrons to be swept into the N-layer and holes into the P-layer. Actually, electron-hole
pairs may be formed in any of the semiconductor regions. However, those formed in the
depletion region are most likely to be separated into the respective N and P-regions.
Many of the electron-hole pairs formed in the P and N-regions recombine. Only a few do
so in the depletion region. Thus, a few electron-hole pairs in the N and P-regions, and
most in the depletion region contribute to photocurrent.

8.7.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

These cells convert light energy to electrical energy. It basically consists of a P-type and
N-type semiconductor material (usually silicon or selenium) forming a P-N junction.
Figure 8.8 shows a schematic symbol of a solar cell.

Figure 8.8: A schematic symbol of a photovoltaic cell

65
The bottom surface of the cell (always away from light) is covered with a continous
conductive contact to which a wire is attached. The upper part has a maximum area
exposed to light. The figure below show a basic solar cell.

Light

Glass

+
Metal ring contact

P-type Si
P-N junction

Figure 8.9: Basic solar cell.

When the P-N junction of a solar cell is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated. An
electric field is established near the junction by the positive and negative ions created due
to the production of electron-hole pairs which leads to the development of potential
across the junction. Many of the electrons are pulled across the junction by the force of
the electric field. Those that cross the junction contribute to the current in the cell and
through the external load. The terminal voltage is directly proportional to the intensity of
the incident light.

8.8 DIODES FOR FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION

There is no doubt that information technology has had an exponential growth through the
modern telecommunication systems. Particularly, optical fiber communication plays a
vital role in the development of high quality and high-speed telecommunication systems.
Today, optical fibers are not only used in telecommunication links but also used in the
Internet and local area networks (LAN) to achieve high signaling rates. In this section, we
shall look at the general system of optical fiber communication and more particularly
semiconductor diodes used such as LEDs, Laser diodes and photodiodes as has been
discussed in previous lecture. Figure 8.10 shows the main parts of an optical fiber
communication. The LEDs and Laser diodes forms major components of the transmitter
side as they emit light. This light is modulated with a signal. The optical signal is then
transmitted through the optical fiber and is received by photodiodes on the destination
side where they are converted back to electrical signals. In long-haul systems, repeaters

66
which include photodiodes and laser diodes and electronic circuits are inserted. In the
repeater, weak electrical signals in the optical fiber are detected by the photodiode and
then reformed and amplified by the electronic circuits. The amplified signal is again
converted into an optical signal by a laser diode and transmitted again through the optical
fiber. This helps reduce attenuation effects in the transmitted signal.

Optical signals Electrical signals

Optical fiber cable

LED, Laser
Photodiode
Diode

Receiver
Transmitter

Figure 8.10: Schematic of optical fiber communication

8.9 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have discussed special purpose diodes such as Zener diodes, varactor
diodes, Schottky diodes, Tunnel diodes, LEDs, Photodiodes and solar cells. We have also
looked at the application areas of each type of diode and reasons that make them suitable
for such applications. The optic fiber communication making use of the above discussed
diodes have also been looked at.

8.10 ACTIVITIES

Collect a computer motherboard and identify all the diodes available. Classify them and
suggest their possible uses in the circuit.

67
8.11 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

8.12 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Define what is meant by zener voltage

2. What are LEDs? How are they fabricated?
3. Describe the use of some special purpose diodes in fiber optic communication
4. What are Schottky diodes? Why are they widely used in high speed computer
circuits
5. Explain the difference between photodiodes and photovoltaic cells
6. Give brief description of tunnel diodes

68
 LECTURE NINE

TRANSISTORS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The invention of the bipolar transistor in 1948 ushered in a revolution in electronics.

Technical feats previously requiring relatively large, mechanically fragile, power-hungry
vacuum tubes were suddenly achievable with tiny, mechanically rugged, power-thrifty
specks of crystalline silicon. This revolution made possible the design and manufacture
of lightweight, inexpensive electronic devices. In this lecture, I assume that you possess a
good knowledge of semiconductors: the difference between P and N doped
semiconductors, the functional characteristics of a P-N (diode) junction, and the
meanings of the terms “reverse bias” and “forward bias”. A transistor is a multifunction
semiconductor device that, in conjunction with other circuit elements, is capable of
current gain, voltage gain, and signal-power gain. The transistor is therefore referred to as
an active device. The basic transistor action is the control of current at one terminal by
voltage applied across two other terminals of the device.

The two basic transistor types are the bipolar transistors (BJTs) and the field-effect
transistors (FETs). The bipolar transistor is covered in this lecture. This lecture will
mainly focus on bipolar transistor characteristics and applications.

9.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

Define a transistor

Identify transistor terminals

Broadly classify transistors

Describe the types of BJTs

Explain bipolar transistor biasing techniques

Explain areas of applications of bipolar transistors

69
9.3 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

The bipolar transistor has three separately doped regions and two P-N junctions,
sufficiently close together so that interactions occur between the two junctions. I shall use
much of the theory developed for the P-N junction in the analysis of the bipolar
transistor. Since the flows of both electrons and holes are involved in this device, it is
called a bipolar transistor. Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators. In other words, they restrict the amount of current that can go through them
according to a smaller, controlling current. You can observe that the transistors have
three layers. Each layer forming the transistor has a specific name, and is provided with a
wire contact for connection to a circuit. These are Emitter, Collector and the base. The
main current that is controlled goes from collector to emitter or from emitter to collector,
depending on the type of transistor it is. The small current that controls the main current
goes from base to emitter or from emitter to base, once again depending on the type of
transistor it is. Bipolar transistors mainly fall into two categories; P-N-P Transistor and
the N-P-N Transistor. In the next section, we shall look at fabrication, characteristics and
applications these bipolar transistor types.

9.3.1 N-P-N TRANSISTORS

In these transistors, the P-type layer is sandwiched between N-type layers as depicted in
the figure below.

C
Emitter P
N N PN Collector
Collector
Emitter P B
E

Base
Base

Figure 9.1: N-P-N transistor symbols

The main current that is controlled goes from emitter to collector while the small current
that controls the main current goes from emitter to base. The arrow always points against
the direction of electron flow. The width of the base region is small and lightly doped
while the emitter region has the largest doping concentration: the collector region has the
smallest. Now we shall discuss the N-P-N transistor biasing. To bias a transistor, the

70
base-emitter (B-E) is forward-biased, and the base-collector (B-C) is reverse-biased in the
normal bias configuration as shown in figure 9.2.

E C E C
N P N
IE IE
IB IC IC
B IB B

VBB VCC VBB VCC

Figure 9.2: N-P-N transistor biasing for common-base configuration

This configuration is called the forward-active operating mode. The B-E junction is
forward-biased so electrons from the emitter are injected across the junction into the base.
These injected electrons create an excess concentration of minority carriers in the base.
The B-C junction is reverse biased, so the minority carrier electron concentration at the
edge of the B-C junction is ideally zero. The large gradient in the electron concentration
means that electrons injected from the emitter will diffuse across the base region into the
B-C depletion region where the electric field will sweep the electrons into the collector.
There is need for as many electrons as possible to reach the collector without
recombining with any majority carrier holes in the base. For this reason, the width of the
base needs to be small compared with the minority carrier diffusion length. If the base
width is small, then the minority carrier electron concentration is a function of both the
B-E and B-C junction voltages. The two junctions are close enough to be called
interacting P-N junctions.

9.3.2 P-N-P TRANSISTORS

In these transistors, the N-type layer is sandwiched between P-type layers as depicted in
the figure below.

71
 Emitter P N PP Collector
Collector C
Emitter N
B
E

Base
Base

Figure 9.3: P-N-P transistor symbol

The main current that is controlled goes from collector to emitter while the small current
that controls the main current goes from base to emitter. The operation of a P-N-P
transistor is similar to that of a N-P-N transistor. However, current here is due to
movement of holes. Figure 9.4 shows a P-N-P transistor with E-B forward-biased and B-
C reverse biased. The forward bias in the E-B causes holes to flow from the emitter
region to the base region. This constitutes the emitter current (IE). The holes combine
with electrons at the base region and constitute base current (IB). However, most of the
holes do not combine with the electrons at the base region since the base is made too thin
and slightly doped and so they do not get enough electrons to combine with. Most of the
holes thus diffuse to the collector region constituting collector current (IC).

E C
P N P
IE
IB IC
B

VBB VCC

Figure 9.4: P-N-P transistor biasing for common-base configuration

9.4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CURRENT RELATIONS

The direction of convectional current is opposite to the direction of current and in the
direction of holes. From figure 9.4, it is clear that the emitter current is the sum of the
collector and base currents. Mathematically, the emitter current,

IE=IB + IC (9.1)

Since the base current is very small, therefore

72
 IE ≈ IC (9.2)

Example

In a common-base connection, a certain transistor has an emitter current of 12 mA and a

collector current of 11.8 mA. Calculate the value of base current.

9.5 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

We know that a transistor has three terminals namely Emitter, Base and Collector.
However, when a transistor is connected in a circuit, we need four terminals i.e., two
terminals for input and two terminals for output. One terminal common to both the input
and the output has hence to be used. Depending on the common terminal, a transistor can
be connected in three different configurations.

9.5.1 COMMON-BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION

Here, the transistor is connected with the base as a common terminal. The input is applied
between the emitter and the base while the output is taken between the collector and the
base. Figure 9.5 shows a schematic of N-P-N transistor in a C-B connection.

E C

Input Output

B B

Figure 9.5: Schematic of N-P-N transistor in Common-Base configuration (C-B)

The ratio of output current to input current of a transistor is called the current gain of the
transistor. The common-base d.c. current gain (α) is defined as the ratio of collector
current (IC) to the emitter current (IE). It may also be designated by hFE.

IC
α = hFE = (9.3)
IE

We can easily show that IB = (1-α) IE since IE = IB + IC

73
Example

In a common-base connection, the emitter current is 4.38 mA and collector current is

4.40 mA. Determine the C-B current gain.

9.5.2 COMMON-EMITTER (C-E) CONFIGURATION

Here, the transistor is connected with the emitter as a common terminal. The input is
applied between the emitter and the base while the output is taken between the collector
and the emitter for an N-P-N transistor as depicted in figure 9.6.

B Output

Input
E E

Figure 9.6: Schematic of a N-P-N transistor in common emitter (C-E)

configuration

The common-emitter d.c. current gain (β) is defined as the ratio of collector current (IC)
to the base current (IB).

IC
β = hFE = (9.4)
IB

Example

A transistor has β=180. Calculate the approximate collector and base currents, if the
emitter current is 12 mA.

9.5.3 COMMON-COLLECTOR (CC) CONFIGURATION

Having looked at C-B and C-E emitter configurations, we now discuss C-C
configuration. In C-C connection, the transistor is connected with the collector as a
common terminal between the emitter and the base. The input is applied between the

74
collector and the base while the output is taken between the collector and the emitter as
shown in figure 9.7 for an N-P-N transistor.

B Output

Input
C C

Figure 9.7: Schematic of an N-P-N transistor in common collector (C-C)

configuration

The common-collector d.c. current gain is defined as the ratio of emitter current (IE) to
the base current (IB). Mathematically, it is given by;

IE
= (9.5)
IB

9.6 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have seen that bipolar transistors are so named because the controlled
current must go through two types of semiconductor material: P and N. The current
consists of both electron and hole flow in different parts of the transistor. Bipolar
transistors consist of either a P-N-P or an N-P-N semiconductor “sandwich” structure.
The three leads of a bipolar transistor are called the Emitter, Base, and Collector.

Lastly, we have also seen that transistors function as current regulators by allowing a
small current to control a larger current. The amount of current allowed between
collector and emitter is primarily determined by the amount of current moving between
base and emitter

9.7 ACTIVITIES

Collect ten bipolar transistors from your locality. Using a multimeter, find out which of
these transistors are of N-P-N types and which ones are P-N-P transistors

75
9.8 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Kano, K. (1998). Semiconductor Devices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

3. Kittel, C. (1993) Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th edition. Berlin: Springer-
Verlag.

4. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

5. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

9.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Justify the terms bipolar and transistor for BJTs

2. What is meant by current gain of a bipolar transistor?

3. Derive relationship between current gain β and α

4. For a common collector configuration, show that it can be given by 1+β

5. In a C-B connection, the emitter current is 3.16 mA and the collector current is
3.12 mA. Calculate the current gain

6. A transistor in a common base connection has a gain of 0.98. If the collector

current is 20 mA, calculate the collector current

7. A transistor has β=100. If the collector current is 40 mA, compute the value of
emitter current

76
8. A transistor in a C-E connection has β=60. Calculate the gain of this transistor if it
is now connected in C-C mode

9. A transistor has β=150. Calculate the approximate value of collector and base
currents

10. Consider the transistor given below. If IE=12 mA and α=0.98, determine the value
of IC and IB.

IC
IB

IE=12 mA

11. Find the following transistor currents in the circuit shown below given that
VBE=0.7 V and β=100

(i). IB, IC and IE

(ii). VCB

(iii). Plot schematic diagrams of output characteristics (Collector characteristics).

Ic
A

IB 150 KΩ B C
10 V

5V E

77
 LECTURE TEN

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

I have already discussed in the last lecture the construction of bipolar junction transistor
and its current gains α and β. These parameters as a matter of fact do not fully describe a
transistor. Curves which relate currents to voltages can be used to give more details about
a transistor. These curves are called characteristics curves. Input characteristics and
output characteristics are two sets of important curves for our discussion. Characteristics
curves of transistors in common-base and in common-emitter shall be considered. The
characteristics curves for transistors in common-collector connection shall not be
discussed as they are considered as special case of common-emitter configuration.

10.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

1. Describe input characteristics of a given transistor type and configuration

2. Describe output characteristics of a given transistor type and configuration

3. Perform simple transistor parameters

10.3 CHARACTERISTICS FOR COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

The characteristics curves can be put into three categories; Input characteristics, Output
characteristics, and Transfer characteristics. We shall now look at each of the
characteristics curves in details. The characteristics curves may be obtained by means of
a circuit arrangement as shown in figure 10.1. In this circuit, N-P-N is connected in a
common base configuration. VCB can be varied by varying R2 while the VEB can be
varied by using R1. The d.c. milliammeters and d.c. voltmeters are connected in the
collector and emitter circuits to measure the currents and voltages respectively.

78
 A IC A
IE NPN

VEE V VCB
V VEB VCC
R1 IB R2

Figure 10.1: Circuit arrangement for characteristics of C-B configuration

10.3.1 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

These curves give the relationship between the emitter current IE and the emitter-to-base
voltage (VEB) for a constant collector-to-base voltage (VCB). The curves are called the
base curves. If a graph of IE is plotted against VEB, a graph shown below is obtained.

10

8 VCB=10V

IE VCB=10V
6 VCB=10V
(mA)

4
Knee
2

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

VEB (V)

Figure 10.2: Input characteristics of a common base transistor

From the graph, you can observe that;

79
 1. There exists a threshold voltage also called offset voltage, cut-in voltage or knee
voltage below which the emitter current is negligibly small. For silicon
transistors, Vknee is approximately 0.5 V and for germanium, 0.1 V.
2. Beyond the knee voltage, for a fixed VCB, IE increases rapidly with small increase
of VEB hence the input resistance is very small.
3. As VCB is increased above 1 V, the curves shift upwards due to base-width
modulation or early effect.

10.3.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

The curves gives the relationship between the collector current (IC) and the collector-to-
base voltage (VCB) for a constant emitter current (IE). These can be obtained from the
circuit 10.1.

Saturation region Active region

IE=8 mA

IC 8
IE=6 mA
(mA)
6

IE=4 mA
4
IE=2 mA
2
IE=0 mA

-2 0 2 4 6 8
VCB (V)

Cut-off region

Figure 10.3: Output characteristics of a common base transistor

From the graph, you can observe that;

1. The curve divides into three parts: Saturation region, active region and cut-off
region. In the saturation region, VCB is negative for N-P-N transistor. In this
region, small change in VCB results into a large value of current. In the active
region, IE=IC and is constant. In the cut-off region, both the junctions of the
transistor are reverse biased.

80
 2. IC flows even if VCB is zero. This is due to the fact that electrons are ejected into
the base region under the action of forward biased E-B junction. These electrons
are collected by the collector due to internal junction voltage at the C-B junction.
3. A small IC flows even when IE is zero. This current is called collector leakage
current (ICBO).
4. IC is independent of VCB in the active region. However, if VCB is increased beyond
a certain value, IC increases rapidly due to avalanche breakdown and the transistor
action is lost.

10.4 CHARACTERISTICS FOR COMMON-EMMITER CONFIGURATION

The circuit below is used to study the input and output characteristics of a N-P-N
transistor in common emitter configuration.

NPN
A IC
IB

VCE
VBE
V V VCC
R1 BE
IE V R2

Figure 10.4: Circuit arrangement for characteristics of C-E configuration

10.4.1 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

These curves give the relationship between the base current (IB) and base-to-emitter
voltage (VBE) for a constant collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE). First, VCE is adjusted to 1
V then VBE is increased in small suitable steps and the value of IB recorded at each step.
When IB is plotted against VBE, a graph below is obtained.

81
 1

0.8 VCE=0V

IB VCE=1V
0.6 VCE=2V
(mA)
VCE=20V
0.4
Knee
0.2

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

VBE (V)

Figure 10.5: Input characteristics of N-P-N common-emitter transistor

From the graph in figure 10.5, you can observe the following:
1. There exists a knee voltage (VKnee) below which the base current is very small
2. Beyond VKnee, IB increases with increase in VBE for a constant VCE but not as rapid
as in C-B configuration. The input resistance of a transistor in a C-E configuration
is higher as compared to the C-B configuration.
3. As VCE is increased above 1 V, the curves shifts downwards. This is because as
VCE is increased, the depletion width in the base region increases

10.4.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

The curves gives the relationship between the collector current (IC) and the collector-to-
emitter voltage (VCE) for a constant base current (IB). These can be obtained from the
circuit arrangement in figure 10.4. VCE is varied using R2 and VBE varied using R1. At
constant IB, VCE is varied and corresponding values of IC measured and recorded. The
figure below shows a typical output characteristics graph of an N-P-N transistor in C-E
configuration mode.

82
 IB

Figure 10.6: Output characteristics of N-P-N common-emitter transistor

1. As can be seen in the graph, the output characteristics can be divided into three
regions namely saturation region, active region and cut-off region. In the "Cut-
off" region, the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current
(IB), zero output collector current (IC) and maximum collector voltage (VCE)
which results in a large depletion layer and no current flows through the device.
The transistor is switched "Fully-OFF". At the "Saturation" region, the transistor
will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied, resulting in
maximum collector current flow and minimum collector emitter voltage which
results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
flows through the device. The active region is the region between the saturation
region and the cut-off region.

2. As VCE is increased, IC increases rapidly to saturation value, depending upon IB

3. When VCE is increased further, IC slightly increases due to reduced IB

4. When IB is zero, little IC called leakage current flows

83
10.5 APPLICATIONS OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

As I have discussed in the above lecture, there are three widely used transistor operating
modes: The cut-off mode when IB=0 so IC=0. The transistor does not conduct and is “cut
off’. There is also saturation mode when there is maximum IC and the transistor is in
conductive mode. The forward active mode is when the transistor is operated between the
above modes. The fourth mode is reverse forward active mode. This mode is not widely
used. A bipolar transistor can be used for different purposes when used in the above
modes.

10.5.1 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

Voltages and currents can he amplified by bipolar transistors in conjunction with other
elements. I will demonstrate this amplification qualitatively in the following discussion.
Figure 10.7 shows an N-P-N bipolar transistor in a common-emitter configuration. The
dc voltage sources, VBB and Vcc, are used to bias the transistor in the forward-active mode.
The voltage source vi represents a time-varying input voltage (such as a signal from a
satellite) that needs to be amplified.

IC
N RC
RB

P VCC
IB
vi
N

VBB

Figure 10.7: N-P-N bipolar transistor in a common-emitter configuration

Assuming vi is a sinusoidal voltage, it induces a sinusoidal component of base current

superimposed on a dc quiescent value. Since IC = β IB, a relatively large sinusoidal
collector current is superimposed on a dc value of collector current. The time-varying
collector current induces a time-varying voltage across the RC resistor which, by
Kirchhoff's voltage law, means that a sinusoidal voltage, superimposed on a dc value,
exists between the collector and emitter of the bipolar transistor. The sinusoidal voltages

84
in the collector- emitter portion of the circuit are larger than the signal input voltage vi so
that the circuit has produced a voltage gain in the time-varying signals. Hence, the circuit
is known as a voltage amplifier.

10.5.2 TRANSISTOR SWITCH

While transistors have many uses, one of the less known uses by amateurs is the ability
for bipolar transistors to turn things on and off. While there are limitations as to what we
can switch ON and OFF, transistor switches offer lower cost and substantial reliability
over conventional mechanical relays. An ideal transistor switch would have an infinite
resistance when turned "OFF" or act as open circuit resulting in zero current flow and
zero resistance or act as short circuit when turned "ON", resulting in maximum current
flow. The two transistor states useful to transistor switching are “cut-off” and
“saturation” states. These are also called “FULLY ON” and “FULLY OFF” states. For
saturation state, IB is maximum resulting to maximum IC while for cut-off state, zero or
negative IB results to a zero IC. From the figure of a common emitter, the collector current
IC is controlled by the base current, IB. The load line specifies the locus of allowable (IC,
VCE) points. Consider an N-P-N transistor used to switch ON and OFF a relay in the
figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8: N-P-N bipolar transistor used as a switch

From the transistor equation for a common emitter, VCC = VCE + I C RL , it can be seen that;
If IB=0, IC=0, therefore, VCC=VCE which is the supply voltage. This is the cut-off state.
When VCE=0, there is maximum IC given by VCC/RL

85
10.6 SUMMARY

As we have seen in this lecture, transistors may be used as switching elements to control
DC power to a load. The switched (controlled) current goes between emitter and
collector, while the controlling current goes between emitter and base for a C-E
configuration.

We have also seen that when a transistor has zero current through it, it is said to be in a
state of cutoff (fully non conducting). When a transistor has maximum current through it,
it is said to be in a state of saturation (fully conducting). These operating points can be
used for transistor switching.

Another important application of BJTs that we have discussed is that it can be used as an
amplifier since it has a high current gain

10.7 ACTIVITIES
Obtain an N-P-N transistor and construct a simple transistor switch by appropriate choice
of a base resistor. The transistor should be able to switch a relay ON and OFF. How does
the value of the base resistor affect the switching?

10.8 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

86
10.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Name the thee bipolar transistor configurations

2. Describe the circuit arrangement for obtaining the output characteristics of a

common-base transistor

3. Sketch the V-I characteristics of an N-P-N transistor in a common-emitter

operation and indicate the different important regions

4. Why are some BJTs used with heat-sinks?

5. State any two uses of bipolar transistors

6. A germanium transistor has α=0.98, ICO=5x10-6 A and IB=1x10-4 A. Find the

values of collector and emitter current

87
 LECTURE ELEVEN

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

As I we discussed, transistors may be roughly grouped into two major divisions: Bipolar
and Field-effect. Now, we shall look at the field effect transistors in this lecture. All
field-effect transistors are unipolar rather than bipolar devices. That is, the main current
through them is comprised either of electrons through an N-type semiconductor or holes
through a P-type semiconductor. We said in the previous lecture that bipolar transistors
utilize a small current to control a large current. However, Field effect transistors utilize
a small voltage to control current. In this lecture, I'll introduce the general concept of the
field-effect transistors. There are two categories of field effect transistors: JFETS and
MOSFETS (IGFETS). This lecture will focus on one particular type: the junction field-
effect transistor and give a brief look at the MOSFETs.

11.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

State the types of FETS

Justify the term “unipolar” transistors

Differentiate bipolar and unipolar transistors using their functional principles

Justify the name Junction Field Effect transistors

Explain how JFETs are designed

Explain how the depletion layer of a JFET varies with the gate-source voltage

11.3 JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

A junction field-effect transistor (JFET) consists of a semiconducting channel whose

conductance is controlled by an electric field. The terminals at either end of the channel
are called source (S) and drain (D). The control electrode that applies the electric field is
called the gate (G) and is made of the opposite type of semiconductor material than the
channel. Thus, there is a P-N junction between the gate and the channel. This P-N
junction is always reverse biased in normal operation. JFETs are known as depletion
mode devices because the channel conducts with zero bias voltage applied (i.e. the
88
depletion region has zero width). Applying a reverse bias increases the width of the
depletion region which in turn reduces the conduction of the channel. This is the basis for
making an amplifier. There are two channel types of JFETs. One type is N-channel and
the other type is P-channel. Both types operate exactly the same way but the terminal
voltages and currents are inverted. Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used
than P-channel hence this discussion is for N-channel devices.
.

Drain

Drain

Gate Gate N
P

Source
Source

(a) (b)

Figure 11.1: Schematic symbol (a) and physical diagram (b) of N-channel JFET

Drain

Drain

Gate Gate N P

Source
Source

Figure 11.2: Schematic symbol (a) and physical diagram (b) of P-channel JFET

In a junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, the controlled current passes from source to
drain or from drain to source as the case may be. The controlling voltage is applied
between the gate and source. It is important to note how the current does not have to
cross through a P-N junction on its way between source and drain: the path called a
channel is an uninterrupted block of semiconductor material. With no voltage applied
between gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to flow. However,

89
if a voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-biases the
P-N junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
regulated. Maximum gate-source voltage “pinches off” all current through source and
drain, thus forcing the JFET into cutoff mode. This behavior is due to the depletion
region of the P-N junction expanding under the influence of a reverse-bias voltage,
eventually occupying the entire width of the channel if the voltage is great enough.

Note: It is of great importance to note that the operational behavior of JFET is exactly
opposite to that of the bipolar junction transistor. Bipolar transistors are normally-off
devices: no current through the base, no current through the collector or the emitter.
JFETs, on the other hand, are normally-on devices: no voltage applied to the gate allows
maximum current through the source and drain. Also take note that the amount of current
allowed through a JFET is determined by a voltage signal rather than a current signal as
with bipolar transistors. In fact, with the gate-source P-N junction reverse-biased, there
should be nearly zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we classify the
JFET as a voltage-controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a current -controlled
device.

11.3.1 DEPLETION REGION IN JFET

Considering an N-channel JFET, the P-type gate and N-channel forms a P-N junction.
This P-N junction is always reverse biased in JFET operation. The reverse bias is applied
by the voltage VGG connected between the gate and the source terminal as shown in the
figure below.
D
Depletion regions

G P-Type

N-channel

S
Figure 11.3: Reverse bias of N-channel JFET

The reverse bias across the gate-source junction may also be achieved by applying
voltage across the source and drain terminals as shown in figure 11.4. The depletion layer

90
is not symmetrical around the gate-to-source junction. It extends more into the channel in
the area near the drain terminal and less near the source terminal.

D
Depletion regions

G VDD

S
Figure 11.4: N-channel JFETshowing extension of depletion region aroung the
drain

The P-region is heavily doped as compared to the N-channel hence the depletion layer
extends more on the N-channel region than in the P-region.

11.3.2 OPERATION OF JFET

I have discussed that the application of negative gate voltage or positive drain voltage
reverse-biases the gate-source junction of an N-channel JFET. The reverse-bias voltage is
meant to form depletion layer. When VDD is applied, the electrons flow from source to
drain through the narrow channel existing between the depletion regions. This constitutes
the drain current, (ID) conventionally directed from the drain to the source. The drain
current (ID) is maximum when no voltage is applied between the gate and the source and
is indicated by IDSS. VGS applied through VGG increases the depletion region and reduces
the effective width of the channel hence the electron through the channel (ID) is
controlled. There is a value of VGS at which the two depletion regions touch each other
and the transistor is completely “pinched-off” or blocked and the drain current is reduced
to zero. This value of VGS is called pinch-off voltage and is designated as VP or VGS(off).

91
 D

G VD

VG

Figure 11.5: Effect of drain-to-source supply of an N-channel JFET

11.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET

There are two important JFET characteristics curves that we shall look at in this section:

Drain characteristics

Transfer characteristics

Drain characteristics
These curves give relationship between the drain current (ID) and drain-to-source voltage
(VDS) at different values of gate-to-source voltage. They may be obtained by using circuit
arrangement shown below. For a constant VGS, various values of VDS and corresponding
ID are read and recorded. A

S VDS
VGG V
V VGS VDD
R1 R2

Figure 11.6: Circuit configuration for drain characteristics of N-channel JFET

92
The graph below shows a drain characteristics of a typical N-channel JFET transistor

P Q R

Figure 11.7: Drain characteristics curves of a typical N-channel JFET

As can be observed from the graph, the curves can be divided into three important parts:

Region P
This is also called Ohmic region. In this region the drain-source voltage is small and the
channel behaves like a fairly ordinary conductor. In this region the current varies roughly
in proportion to the drain-source voltage as if the JFET obeys Ohm's law. Here, the N-
channel bar behaves as a resistor.

Region Q
The drain current increases at the reverse square law rate with the increase in drain-to-
source voltage i.e, the drain current increases slowly as compared to that in the ohmic
region. This is because the depletion layer size increases due to increases in reverse
voltage in the gate-source junction.

Region R
This region is called Pinch-off region or saturation region or constant current region.
Here, the drain current remains constant at maximum value of IDSS when VGS=0. The
drain current in this region depends on VGS and is given by the Shockly’s equation below.

2
 V 
I D = I DSS 1 − GS  (11.1)
 VP 

This is the normal operation region of the transistor.

93
Beyond region R
This region is called the breakdown region. The drain current (ID) increase rapidly as
drain-source voltage (VDS) is increased. This is due to breakdown of gate-to-source
junction due to avalanche effect.

Transfer characteristics
These are called transconductance curves and give the relationship between the drain
current (ID) and gate-to-source voltage (VGS) for a constant value of source-to-drain
voltage (VDS). These curves can also be obtained using the circuit arrangement in figure
11.6. For a given VDS, ID is adjusted and corresponding values of VGS measured and
recorded. A typical transfer characteristics curves obtained from an N-channel JFET is
shown below.

IDSS

VP
ID (mA)

VGS (Volts)

Figure 11.8: output characteristics curves of a typical N-channel JFET

The upper end of the curve is IDSS (maximum drain current) when VGS=0. The lower end
is indicated by VP. This curve is part of a parabola and may be expressed by equation
11.2.

2
 V 
I D = I DSS 1 − GS  (11.2)
 VP 

Example

The data sheet of a certain JFET indicates that IDSS=4 mA and VP=-6 V. Determine the
drain current for VGS=-2 V

94
 ID=4x10-3[1-(-2/-6]2
=0.004[4/9]
=1.778 mA

11.4 METAL-OXIDE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (MOSFETS)

This device exploits a similar principle of a depletion region controlling conductivity

through a semiconductor channel, but it differs primarily from the JFET in that there is no
direct connection between the gate lead and the semiconductor material itself. Rather, the
gate lead is insulated from the transistor body by a thin barrier, hence the term insulated
gate hence it is also called insulated gate field effect transistors (IGFETS). This
insulating barrier acts like the dielectric layer of a capacitor, and allows gate-to-source
voltage to influence the depletion region electrostatically rather than by direct connection.
In addition to a choice of N-channel versus P-channel design, IGFETs come in two major
types: enhancement and depletion. The depletion type is more closely related to the
JFET, so we will begin our study of IGFETs with it.

Depletion-type IGFETs
Insulated gate field-effect transistors are unipolar devices just like JFETs: that is, the
controlled current does not have to cross a P-N junction. There is a P-N junction inside
the transistor, but its only purpose is to provide that nonconducting depletion region
which is used to restrict current through the channel. Here is a diagram of an N-channel
IGFET of the “depletion” type or D-type IGFET.

Drain

Drain

Substrate Gate N P Substrate

Gate
Insulating barrier

Source

Source

Figure 11.9: Schematic symbol (a) and of physical diagram of an N-channel IGFET of
the “depletion” type.

95
The source and drain leads connect to either end of the N-channel, and the gate lead
attaches to a metal plate separated from the channel by a thin insulating barrier that is
sometimes made from silicon dioxide which is a very good insulator. Due to this, Metal
(gate) - Oxide (barrier) – Semiconductor (channel) construction, the IGFET is sometimes
referred to as a MOSFET.

11.5 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have seen that field-effect transistors control the current between the
source and the drain connections by a voltage applied between the gate and source. In a
junction field-effect transistor (JFET), there is a P-N junction between the gate and
source which is normally reverse-biased for control of source-drain current.

It has also been seen that JFETs are normally-on (normally-saturated) devices. The
application of a reverse-biasing voltage between gate and source causes the depletion
region of that junction to expand, thereby “pinching off” the channel between source and
drain through which the controlled current travels.

11.6 ACTIVITIES

Investigate electronic circuits of broken down devices and collect JFETs. Use an
ohmmeter to identify the source, drain and gate terminals of the devices. Again,
categorize then as either N-channel or P-channel.

11.7 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

96
11.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Give advantages and disadvantages of UJTs over BJTs

2. Outline two categories of JFETs
3. Define the following terms for a JFET: pinch-off voltage, Transconductance,
channel, IDSS and IGSS
4. A JFET has parameters of VGS(off) equal to -40 V and IDSS=15 mA. Calculate the
drain current in this transistor if the gate-source voltage is 12 V.
5. Bring out a clear difference between JFETs and MOSFETs
6. Explain with use of diagrams enhanced mode and depletion mode of JFETs
7. Explain why N-channel MOSFETs are more popular than P-channel

97
 LECTURE TWELVE

TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

These parameters are used in transistor amplifier analysis and give very accurate results.
They are also called h-parameters. They are generally used to determine amplifier
characteristic parameters such as voltage gain, input and output resistance e.t.c. In this
lecture, we shall look at the h-parameters of transistors as a linear device.

12.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Define h-parameters and state their advantages

Determine the value of h-parameters for a given circuit

Draw hybrid equivalent circuits for C-B, C-E and C-C transistor configurations

12.3 THE h-PARAMETERS OF LINEAR CIRCUITS

The figure below shows a model of any linear device or circuit. This device is
represented by a box and four terminals (two terminals for inputs and two for outputs).
Currents flow into the box and the voltages are such that the upper part is positive while
the lower part is negative.
i1 i2

+ +

v1 Linear circuit v2

- -

Figure 12.1: Linear circuit

This linear circuit may be replaced by an equivalent circuit as shown below;

98
 h11
+
i2
i1 +

h22
v1 h12.v2 v2
h21.i1
-

Figure 12.2: Hybrid model for linear circuit

In this equivalent circuit, the following relations apply

v1=h11.i1+h12.v2 (12.1)

i2=h21.i1+h22.v2 (12.2)

These equations have been found by applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to the input and
output circuits of the hybrid model.

Note:
It is important to note that h11 is measured on ohms (Ω), h12 and h21 are dimentionless and
h22 is measured on mhos (Ω-1). Since these parameters have mixed units, they are called
“hybrid parameters”. h11 and h21 are determined by short-circuiting the output terminals
(letting v2=0) while h12 and h22 are obtained by open-circuiting the input terminals (letting
i1=0).

12.4 THE h-PARAMETER NOTATIONS FOR TRANSISTORS

The h11 and h21 are called forward parameters while h12 and h22 are called reverse
parameters. This is due to how the parameters present themselves. Example, h12 is a
reverse parameter because it is a voltage gain of v1/v2 and not v2/v1 forward gain.
Similarly, h22 is reverse parameter because it is output conductance. It is convenient to
represent the parameters h11, h12, h21 and h22 as hi, hr, hf and ho respectively. This is to say;

hi=h11=Input resistance with output shorted

hr=h12=Reverse voltage gain with input open

hf=h21=Forward current gain with output shorted

ho=h22=Output conductance with input open

99
Note: i=input, r=reverse, f=forward and o=output

The h-parameters of a transistor depend upon the types of connections used i.e C-E, C-B
or C-C configurations. The h-parameters for transistors hence carry a second subscript
letter, e, b and c where the letter ‘e’ represents common-emitter, ‘b’ represents common-
base and ‘c’ represents common-collector configuration. The table below shows the
notations commonly used for transistor h-parameters.

Transistor configurations

S.No. General Common Common base Common

parameter emitter collector

1 h11 hie hib hic

2 h12 hre hrb hrc

3 h21 hfe hfb hfc

4 h22 hoe hob hoc

Figure 12.3: Commonly used transistor h-parameters

12.4.1 HYBRID EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF C-E TRANSISTOR

Figure shows the transistor connected in common-emitter configuration and the

corresponding hybrid equivalent circuit.
ic C
B hie C
+

B ic
ib ib +

hoe
Vbe hre.vce Vce
vbe hfe.ib
-

E E E E
(a) (b)

100
 Figure 12.4: Common emitter transistor (a) and hybrid equivalent circuit for C-E
transistor

The input voltage (Vbe) and the output current (iC) are given by the following equations:

Vbe= hie.ib + hre.vce (12.3)

ic= hfe.ib + hoe.vce (12.4)

12.4.2 HYBRID EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF C-B TRANSISTOR

E hib C
E ic C +
ie
Ic
ie +

hob
veb Veb hrb.vcb Vcb
vcb
hfb.ib
-

B
B B B

Figure 12.5: (a) common-base transistor (b) Hybrid equivalent circuit for C-B
configuration

The input voltage (Veb) and the output current (iC) are given by the following equations:

Veb= hib.ie + hrb.vcb (12.5)

ic= hfe.ie + hob.vcb (12.6)

12.4.3 HYBRID EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF C-C TRANSISTOR

B hic E
B ib +
Ie
ib +
ie E
hoc
vbc Vbc hrc.vec Vec
vec hfc.ib
-

C
C C C

101
Figure 12.6: (a) common-collector transistor (b) Hybrid equivalent circuit for C-C
configuration

The input voltage (vbc) and the output current (ie) are given by the following equations:

vbc= hic.ib + hrc.vec (12.7)

ie= hfc.ib + hoc.vec (12.8)

12.5 AMPLIFIER EXPRESSIONS

Figure 12.7 shows a general amplifier circuit. In this circuit, a transistor is connected in
common emitter, common base or common collector configurations to a voltage source
(VS) and a load resistance (rL). The voltage source has an internal resistance (RS). The
load resistance (rL) is the effective or a.c. load resistance seen by the transistor as its
output.

RS hi i2

i1 i2
RS
i1 +
Transistor RL h0 rL
v1 V1 hr.v2 V2
hf.i1
-

-
Figure 12.7: (a) General amplifier circuit (b) Hybrid equivalent circuit

v1=hi.i1+hr.v2
12.9

i2=hf.i1+ho.v2
12.10

You need to note that the voltage drop across load resistance (rL) is equal to the voltage
across the output terminals of the transistor. Thus;

V2=iL.rL=-i2.rL (12.11)

102
12.5 .1 CURRENT GAIN (Ai)

Mathematically, the current gain,

i i
Ai = L = − 2 (12.12)
i1 i1
Substituting the value of V2=-i2.rL in equation 12.10,

hf
Ai = − (12.13)
1 + ho .rL

12.5 .2 INPUT RESISTANCE (Ri)

This is the resistance in the amplifier input terminals. It is given by the equation below.

hr .h f
Ri= Ai = hi − (12.14)
1
ho +
rL

12.5 .3 VOLTAGE GAIN (AV)

It is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage. Mathematically, the voltage
gain,
v i .r
AV = 2 = − 2 L (12.15)
v1 v1
h f .rL
AV = − (12.16)
hi + ∆h.rL

Note that ∆h = hi ho − hr h f (12.17)

12.5 .4 OUTPUT RESISTANCE (Ro)

Is the ratio of output voltage (v2) to output current (i2). Mathematically,

Rs + hi
Ro = − (12.18)
Rs .ho + ∆h

103
The Hybrid formulae for the three transistor configurations may be obtained from the
general hybrid formulae which we have indicated above. This is done simply by adding a
second subscript letters ‘e’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ which stands for common emitter, common base
and common collector respectively. The formulae are shown in the table in figure 12.8.

Parameter Common- Common-base Common-collector

emitter

Current gain (Ai) h fe h fb h fc

− − −
1 + hoe .rL 1 + hob .rL 1 + hoc .rL

Voltage gain (Av) h fe .rL h fb .rL h fc .rL

− − −
hie + ∆h.rL hib + ∆h.rL hic + ∆h.rL

Input resistance hre .h fe hrb .h fb hrc .h fc

(Ri) hie − hib − hic −
1 1 1
hoe + hob + hoc +
rL rL rL

Output resistance Rs + hie Rs + hib Rs + hic

− − −
(Ro) Rs .hoe + ∆h Rs .hob + ∆h Rs .hoc + ∆h

Figure 12.8: Hybrid formulae for transistor configurations

12.6 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have discussed use of hybrid parameters in representation of bipolar

transistor characteristics in C-B, C-E and C-C configurations. The hybrid equivalent
circuits for these configurations have also been discussed.

12.7 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

104
3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

12.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term hybrid parameters?

2. Draw the equivalent circuit of a common emitter configuration in terms of h-
parameters and obtain the expression for voltage and current gains.
3. Consider the circuit below.

i1 3.6 Ω N 6Ω i2
1 2

4Ω

1’ 2’
N’

Determine the values of h-parameters.

4. A transistor is connected in a C-E configuration and has the following h
parameters. hie=1200 Ω; hre=0.00024, hfe=50, hoe=25 µ Siemens and rS=rL= 1 KΩ.
Calculate;
(a) The current gain
(b) The input impedance
(c) The voltage gain.

105
 LECTURE THIRTEEN

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The operational amplifier is arguably the most useful single device in analog electronic
circuitry. With only a handful of external components, it can be made to perform a wide
variety of analog signal processing tasks. It is also quite affordable, most general-purpose
amplifiers selling for under a dollar apiece. Modern designs have been engineered with
durability in mind as well: several “op-amps” that are manufactured can sustain direct
short-circuits on their outputs without damage. In this lecture, I will discuss the
characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers.

13.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Explain the operation of an op-amp

Explain the power supply of an op-amp

Define the terms CMRR, bandwidth, Gain, input resistance, slew rate and output
resistance

Differentiate between the inverting and non-inverting amplifier

13.3 SINGLE-ENDED AMPLIFIERS

For ease of drawing complex circuit diagrams, electronic amplifiers are often symbolized
by a simple triangle shape. These op amps amplify a single signal. The +V and -V
connections denote the positive and negative sides of the DC power supply respectively.
The input and output voltage connections are shown as single conductors, because it is
assumed that all signal voltages are referenced to a common connection in the circuit
called ground.

106
 +VSupply

Input Output

-VSupply

Figure 13.1: A schematic of a single-ended op-amp

13.3.1 OP-AMP PARAMETERS

Gain
An ideal op-amp has infinite open-loop differential gain. The gains are expressed in
decibels (dB). If v1 is the input voltage and v2 is the output voltage, then the gain in dB
is:

v2
dB = 20 log10 (13.1)
v1

Input Resistance
The input resistance of an ideal op-amp is infinitely high but in practice, it is a value
between 250 kΩ and 400 MΩ for op-amps with BJT inputs and 1012 Ω for op-amps with
FETs.

Output resistance
An op-amp is basically voltage amplifier. It should have its output resistance as low as
possible.

Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

A common voltage applied to both the inverting and non-inverting terminals is called a
common-mode signal and yields a zero output voltage. It is unwanted electrical noise.
The ability of an op-amp to suppress the common-mode signal is expressed in the form of
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and is given by relation

CMRR=Differential voltage gain/common mode voltage gain

107
 =ADM/ACM (13.2)
In dB,

ADM
CMRR = 20 log10 (13.3)
ACM

Slew rate

Is the maximum rate at which its output voltage is capable of changing expressed in volts
per second. The slew rate of a typical op-amp is in the range 0.3-12 V/µs. Slew rate can
be used to find the maximum operating frequency of the op-amp as:

slew rate
f max = (13.4)
2πVpeak

where vpeak is the maximum value of the applied input signal.

Bandwidth

13.3.2 THE OP-AMP AS A VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

As I have indicated previously, op-amp has a very high voltage gain. However, it cannot
be used without a feedback in which the output of an op-amp is connected to its inverting
or non-inverting input. When the output is connected to the inverting terminal, this is
called negative feedback and if the output is connected to the non-inverting terminal of
the op-amp, this is called positive feedback.

- Vout
+
Vin

Figure 13.2: A schematic of an op-amp with negative feedback

As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as
Vout increases, that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to
decrease the voltage differential between inputs, which acts to bring the output down.

108
What will happen for any given voltage input is that the op-amp will output a voltage
very nearly equal to Vin, but just low enough so that there's enough voltage difference left
between Vin and the (-) input to be amplified to generate the output voltage. The circuit
will quickly reach a point of stability where the output voltage is just the right amount to
maintain the right amount of differential, which in turn produces the right amount of
output voltage.

Inverting Amplifier
The figure below shows an inverting amplifier that makes use of a single input resistor R1
and a single feedback resistor R2.
R2

R1
+V

- Vout
Vin
+

-V

Figure 13.3: A schematic of an inverting op-amp

The voltage gain AV is given by;

R2
AV = (13.5)
R1

Note: The output voltage is 180o out of phase with the input voltage

Non-inverting Amplifier

Figure 13.4 shows a basic configuration of a non-inverting amplifier. The input signal in
applied to the non-inverting op-amp input and the resistor R1 is returned to the ground.

109
 I2 R2

R1
+V

i1 + Vout

-V
Vin

Figure 13.4: A schematic of a non-inverting op-amp

R2
Voltage gain AV = 1 + (13.6)
R1

13.4 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

An operational amplifier is a linear integrated circuit that has a very high voltage gain,
high input impedance and low input impedance. Op amps are provided by two inputs; an
inverting input labeled (-) and non-inverting input labeled (+) as we have seen above.
Any signal applied at the inverting terminal appears with opposite polarity at the output
while signals applied at the non-inverting terminal appear with the same polarity at the
output terminal. Unlike normal amplifiers, which amplify a single input signal (often
called single-ended amplifiers), differential amplifiers amplify the voltage difference
between two input signals. Using the simplified triangle amplifier symbol, a differential
amplifier looks as depicted below.
+VSupply

V1
+
Output
V2 -

-VSupply

110
 Figure 13.5: A schematic of a differential op-amp

An increasingly positive voltage on the (+) input tends to drive the output voltage more
positive, and an increasingly positive voltage on the (-) input tends to drive the output
voltage more negative. Likewise, an increasingly negative voltage on the (+) input tends
to drive the output negative as well, and an increasingly negative voltage on the (-) input
does just the opposite. Because of this relationship between inputs and polarities, the (-)
input is commonly referred to as the inverting input and the (+) as the non-inverting
input. Figure 13.6 shows a differential amplifier with two input voltages V1 and V2.

R2

R1
+V
V1
-

+ Vout
V2
-V
R3 R4

Figure 13.6: A schematic of a differential op-amp

Voltage gain, AV=Vout/v1-v2 (13.7)

=R2/R1 (13.8)

13.5 BASIC APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMPS

Op-amps can be used as a constant gain multiplier, basic amplifier, voltage summing
amplifier, comparator, in oscillator circuits and active filter circuits among other areas. In
this section, I shall look at some few applications.

13.5.1 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS

Is an op-amp circuit that accepts several inputs and provides an output that is proportional
to the sum of the inputs. The basic summing circuit is shown in figure 13.7.

111
 R4
R1
V1
R2 +V

V2
-

R3 + Vout
V3
-V

Figure 13.7: A basic summing amplifier

If all the three voltages are present, the output voltage is:

 R   R  R 
Vo =  − 4 .v1  +  − 4 .v2  − 4 .v3  (13.9)
 R1   R2  R3 

If R1= R2= R3= R4, then;

Vo=-(V1+V2+V3) (13.10)

It is clear that the output voltage is the sum of all the input voltages. The negative sign
means the output voltage is 180o out of phase with the input voltages.

13.5.2 COMPARATORS

Is a circuit that is used to compare two voltages and provide an output indicating the
relationship between the voltages. They are generally used to compare two changing
voltages to each other and comparing a changing voltage to a reference voltage. The
input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and a set of dc reference
voltage (Vref) is applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. As long as the input
voltage is below Vref, the output is approximately “-Vmax” volts but if the input voltage is
equal or exceeds Vref, the comparator output changes to “+Vmax”

R1 +V
Vref
-

+ Vout
Vin -V

112
 Figure 13.8: A schematic of a differential op-amp as a comparator

13.5.3 INTEGRATORS

Is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform.

I1 Cf

Rf I1
+V

-
Vin
+ Vout

-V

Figure 13.9: A schematic of an integrator circuit

The cut-off frequency of an integrator is given by;

1
f1 = (13.11)
2πR f C f

The integrator will start to lose its linear output characteristics before f1 is reached, thus
for an optimum output, the value XC should always be less than 0.1 Rf, i.e ;

XC<0.1 Rf (13.12)

This leads to the point that the integrator circuit should not be operated below the
frequency,

10
f min = 10 f1 = (13.13)
2πR1C1

113
13.5.4 DIFFERENTIATORS

This is a circuit whose output is proportional to the rate of change to its input signal. You
can notice that the position of the capacitor and resistor is reversed in comparison to the
integrator.

I1 R1

I1
+V

-
Vin C1 + Vout

-V

Figure 13.10: A schematic of a differentiator circuit

The cut-off frequency of a differentiator is given by the equation;

1
f2 = (13.14)
2πR1C1

There is a limit on the high frequency operation of the differentiation. The circuit will
start to lose its operating characteristics at one-tenth the value of f2, i.e

f2 1
f max = = (13.15)
10 20πR1C1

13.6 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have discussed an op amp whereby we have seen it is basically a

voltage amplifier with a high gain, high input impedance and low output impedance. We
have also seen that connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called
negative feedback. An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage
to whatever level necessary so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is
practically zero. We have also discussed construction of inverting and non-inverting

114
amplifiers. Summing amps, differentiators and integrators have also been looked at in this
lecture.

13.7 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc., 1221
2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA

13.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is an operational amplifier?

2. Define the following terms: CMRR, bandwidth, slew rate, output resistance and
gain of an op-amp
3. A certain op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 100,000 and a common- mode
gain of 2.5. Determine the CMRR and describe it in dB
4. Describe some characteristics of op-amps
5. What is a differential amplifier?
6. How does the input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier compare to the input
impedance of the op-amp itself
7. The figure below shows a circuit of a summing amplifier. Determine the value of
output voltage for this circuit

24 KΩ
10 KΩ
2V
10 KΩ
+V
6V
-

10 KΩ + Vout
5V
-V

115
8. Explain the need for a negative feedback in op amps
9. The figure below shows an op-amp configuration. Determine the value of R2
required to produce a gain of 150

R2

R1=2.4 KΩ
+V

- Vout
Vin
+

-V

10. A differentiator has a feedback resistor R1=14 kΩ and input capacitance C1=0.02
µF. Calculate the cut-off frequency and its maximum linear operating frequency.
11. Give a circuit diagram difference between a differentiator and integrator.
12. Design an Op-Amp circuit that performs the following functions:
Vo = -10 (VA + VB + VC)

13. Using a well labeled diagram, design a Wien Bridge Oscillator that oscillates at 2
KHz. Assume c=0.01 µF

116
 LECTURE FOURTEEN

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

14.1 INTRODUCTION

In this last lecture, we shall have a brief look at semiconductor devices used for power
control such as Shockley diodes, thyristors -TRIACS, DIACS, SCRs. We shall discuss
the operating conditions of these devices.

14.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

The major semiconductor devices used for power control

Explain the fabrication of the major power semiconductor devices

Describe the operation of some major power semiconductor devices

Name and describe the types of thyristors

14.3 THYRISTORS

A thyristor is a four layer P-N-P-N- device with three P-N junctions. It has two switching
states namely the ON conducting state and the OFF non-conducting state. They are
mainly used for high power switching applications such as control of a.c. power to a load,
motor speed control, light dimmers e.t.c. Thyristors mainly falls in two categories:
unidirectional and bidirectional. The unidirectional thyristors conduct only in one
direction and includes SCRs, LASCRs and SCS. On the other hand, bidirectional
thyristors conduct in two directions; forward as well as the reverse directions. Thyristors
require a control signal from triggering devices to switch from the non-conducting to
conducting mode.

117
14.3.1 SHOCKLEY DIODES

It is also called a PNPN diode, or a Shockley diode after its inventor, William Shockley.
It is basically is a four layer sandwich of P-N-P-N semiconductor material.

Anode

Cathode

Figure 14.1: Illustration of the Shockley diode

Shown like in figure 14.2, Shockley diode appears to be a set of interconnected bipolar
transistors, one P-N-P and the other N-P-N. These diodes can be forward or reverse
biased. It is forward biased when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode and is
forward biased when the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. In both cases,
there is no flow of current (except leakage current) through the diode. However, if the
applied forward voltage is increased beyond a critical value called breakover voltage
(VBO), the diode switches to ‘ON’ state and the current through it becomes very large and
is controlled by the external voltage. As the value of reverse voltage of a Shockley diode
is increased beyond reverse breakdown voltage, a large amount of current flows through
it due to avalanche effect and it may get damaged. Shockley diodes are hence
unidirectional devices like the other diodes we discussed in the earlier lectures.

118
 Anode
Anode

N N

P P

Cathode Cathode

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14.2: Physical diagram (a), Equivalent schematic (b), Schematic symbol (c) of
Shockley diode

14.3.2 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (SCRS)

This device has a wide application in the industrial or power electronics. It is an

improved chockley diode with additional terminal called the gate for triggering it into
latch mode.

Source
Source

Gate
Gate

Drain
Drain

(a) (b)

Figure 14.3: Equivalent schematic (a), Schematic symbol (b) of SCR

119
SCR can be forward or reverse biased. When the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode, the SCR is forward biased and when the anode is negative with respect to the
cathode, the SCR is reverse biased. In both cases, there is no flow of current (except
leakage current) through the SCR. The SCR is in ‘OFF’ state. If the applied forward
voltage is increased beyond a critical value called breakover voltage (VBO), the SCR
switches to ‘ON’ state and the current through it becomes very large and is controlled by
the external voltage. Again, when the SCR is reverse biased, it is in ‘OFF’ state with little
reverse voltage but as this voltage is increased beyond reverse breakdown voltage, a
large amount of current flows through the SCR due to avalanche effect and it may get
damaged. However, practical SCRs are not latched by the anode to cathode voltage as we
have seen above but by use by a gate-cathode voltage. This method of securing SCR
conduction is called triggering. Once the SCR is switches ‘ON’, the gate has no further
control on the device current. The gate pulse can be supplied by d.c. or a.c. source. SCRs
may sometimes be turned ‘OFF’ by directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals
together, or by “reverse-triggering” the gate with a negative voltage. Other ways of
triggering SCR is by use of light (LASCR) and by rate-effect. SCRs has a number of
industrial applications such as motor speed control, light dimming control, heater control,
phase control, battery charger, inverters, static switches, rectifier power supplies and
relay control among others.

14.3.3 DIACS

Like all diodes, Shockley diodes are unidirectional devices; that is, they only conduct
current in one direction. If bidirectional (a.c) operation is desired, two Shockley diodes
may be joined in parallel facing different directions to form a new kind of thyristor, the
DIAC. The diagrams below shows equivalent circuit and schematic symbol of a DIAC.

(a) (b)

Figure 14.4: Equivalent schematic (a), Schematic symbol (b) of a DIAC

120
A DIAC operated with a d.c voltage across it behaves exactly the same as a Shockley
diode we have seen in section 14.3.1. With a.c., however, the behavior is different from
what one might expect. Because alternating current repeatedly reverses direction, DIACs
will not stay latched longer than one-half cycle. If a DIAC becomes latched, it will
continue to conduct current only as long as there is voltage available to push enough
current in that direction. When the a.c. polarity reverses, as it must twice per cycle, the
DIAC will drop out due to insufficient current, necessitating another breakover before it
conducts again.

14.3.4 TRIACS

Are three terminal device, which can conduct in either direction when triggered by either
a positive or a negative pulse irrespective of the polarity of the voltage across its main
terminal. Triacs behave like two SCRs connected in parallel but in opposite directions
with a common gate terminal i.e., the anode of one SCR is connected to the cathode of
the other and their gates are connected together. Thus, anode and gate voltage applied in
either direction triggers the triac. Figure 14.5 shows an equivalent circuit and schematic
symbol a triac.

M.T. 2 M.T. 2

SCR 1 SCR 2
Gate
Gate

M.T. 1 M.T. 1
(a) (b)

Figure 14.5: Equivalent schematic (a), Schematic symbol (b) of a TRIAC

The triac can switch the current in either direction by applying a low voltage, low current
pulse of either polarity between the gate and one of the two terminals M.T.1 and M.T.2.
The normal modes operating triacs: when either both M.T.2 and the gate terminal are

121
positive or when both M.T.2 and the gate terminal are negative with the former being the
best.

14.4 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have looked at semiconductor devices used for controlling power.
They are basically used for switching purposes, rectification.

14.5 ACTIVITIES

Collect various power semiconductor devices and classify them. Also record their ratings.

14.6 FURTHER READING

1. Donald A. N. (2003), Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3rd edition, McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 1221.

2. Sedha, R.S. (2006), Applied Electronics, 12Th edition, S. Chand & company
LTD., Ram Nagar: New Delhi.

3. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

4. Sze, S.M. (2002) Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd edition, Willy, New
York: USA.

14.7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Give three differences between the SCRs and TRIACs

2. Discuss briefly the construction, working and applications of SCRs

3. Elaborate the differences between DIACs and TRIACs

4. Justify the name ‘TRIAC’

5. Compare SCRs and transistors

122
GLOSSARY

Acceptor atoms -Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create a p-type material.

Allowed energy band- A band or range of energy levels that an electron in a crystal is
allowed to occupy based on quantum mechanics.

Avalanche breakdown- The process whereby a large reverse-bias p-n junction current is
created due to the generation of electron-hole pairs by the collision of electrons and or
holes with atomic electrons within the space charge region.

Binary semiconductor -A two-element compound semiconductor, such as gallium

arsenide.

Carrier generation-The process of elevating electrons from the valence band into the
conduction band creating an electron-hole pair.

Carrier injection -The flow of carriers across the space charge region of a p-n junction
when a voltage is applied.

Carrier recombination- The process whereby an electron "falls" into an empty state in
the valence hand (a hole) so that an electron-hole pair are annihilated.

Charge carrier- The electron and or hole that moves inside the semiconductor and gives
rise to electrical currents.

Complete ionization- The condition when all donor atoms are positively charged by
giving up their donor electrons and all acceptor atoms are negatively charged by
accepting electrons.

Conductivity- Material parameter related to carrier drift; quantitatively, the ratio of drift
current density to electric field.

Covalent bonding- The bonding between atoms in which valence electrons are shared.

Degenerate semiconductor- A semiconductor whose electron concentration or hole

concentration is greater than the effective density of states, so that the Fermi level is in
the conduction band (n type) or in the valence band (p type).

Density of states function -The density of available quantum states as a function of

energy, given in units of number per unit energy per unit volume.

Diamond lattice- The atomic crystal structure of silicon, for example, in which each
atom has four nearest neighbors in a tetrahedral configuration.

123
Diamond lattice- The atomic crystal structure of silicon, for example, in which each
atom has four nearest neighbors in a tetrahedral configuration.

Donor atoms- Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create an n-type material.

Doping- The process of adding specific types of atoms to a semiconductor to favorably

alter the electrical characteristics.

Drift current- The current that results from the drift of charged particles.

Drift- The process whereby charged particles move while under the influence of an
electric field.

Drift velocity- The average velocity of charged particles in the presence of an electric
field.

Electron effective mass-The parameter that relates the acceleration of an electron in the
conduction band of a crystal.

Elemental semiconductor- A semiconductor composed of a single species of atom, such

as silicon or germanium.

Extrinsic semiconductor- A semiconductor in which controlled amounts of donors or

acceptors have been added to its lattice.

Femi energy-The energy below which all states are filled with electrons and above
which all states are empty at T = 0 K.

Fermi-Dirac probability function- The function describing the statistical distribution of

electrons among available energy states and the probability that an allowed energy state
is occupied by an electron.

Forbidden energy band- A band or range of energy levels that an electron in a crystal is
not allowed to occupy based on quantum mechanics.

Forward bias- The condition in which a positive voltage is applied to the p region with
respect to the n region of a p-n junction so that the potential barrier between the two
regions is lowered below the thermal-equilibrium value.

Generation current- The reverse-bias p-n junction current produced by the thermal
generation of electron-hole pairs within the space charge region.

Hall voltage- The voltage induced across a semiconductor in a Hall Effect measurement.

124
Heisenberg uncertainty principle -The principle that states that we cannot describe with
absolute accuracy the relationship between sets of conjugate variables that describe the
behavior of particles, such as momentum and position.

Hole- The positively charged "particle" associated with an empty state in the top of the
valence band.

Intrinsic carrier concentration, ni- The electron concentration in the conduction band
and the hole concentration in the valence band (equal values) in an intrinsic
semiconductor.

Intrinsic Fermi level, EFj -The position of the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic semiconductor- A pure semiconductor material with no impurity atoms and no

lattice defects in the crystal.

k-space diagram-The plot of electron energy in a crystal versus k, where k is the

momentum related constant of the motion that incorporates the crystal interaction.

Lattice -The periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal.

Metallurgical junction- The interface between the p- and n-doped regions of a p-n
junction.

Miller indices-The set of integers used to describe a crystal plane.

Mobility- The parameter relating carrier drift velocity and electric field.

Pauli exclusion principle- The principle that states that no two electrons can occupy the
same quantum state.

Photon -The particle-like packet of electromagnetic energy.

Primitive cell-The smallest unit cell that can be repeated to form a lattice.

Quanta -The particle-like packet of thermal radiation.

Resistivity- The reciprocal of conductivity; a material parameter that is a measure of the

resistance to current flow.

Reverse bias-The condition in which a positive voltage is applied to the n region with
respect to the p region of a p-n junction so that the potential barrier between the two
regions increases above the thermal-equilibrium built-in potential barrier.

Reverse saturation current- The ideal reverse-bias current in a p-n junction.

125
Space charge region- The region on either side of the metallurgical junction in which
there is a net charge density due to ionized donors in the n-region and ionized acceptors
in the p region.

Space charge width- The width of the space charge region, a function of doping
concentrations and applied voltage.

Ternary semiconductor- A three-element compound semiconductor such as aluminum

gallium arsenide (AIGaAs).

Unit cell-A small volume of a crystal that can be used to reproduce the entire crystal.

Zincblende lattice-A lattice structure identical to the diamond lattice except that there
are two types of atoms instead of one.

126
ANSWERS TO NUMERICAL SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

LECTURE TWO

4. For a simple cubic lattice, find Miller indices for the planes below:

(643)

LECTURE FOUR

7. (i) 9.3x102 cm-3

(ii) The Fermi level measured from the bottom of the conduction band=0.1465
eV
The Fermi level measured from the intrinsic Fermi level=0.4184 eV

LECTURE FIVE

5. 3.125x1020/cm3

6. 4.81 0hm-cm

7. (a) Conductivity=1.85x107 Sm-1

(b) Electron mobility=6.99x10-1 (Vs)-1

8. 125 mV

10. Intrinsic carrier concentration=2x1015 m-3

Conductivity=6.1x10-5 S/m

Resistivity=1.639x104 Ω-m

LECTURE SEVEN

5. 120.6 mA
6. 253.64 mA
7.

127
 LECTURE NINE

5. O.9873
6. 0.4081 mA
7. 40.4 mA
8. 61
9. IC=9.93 mA IB=0.07 mA
10. IC=11.76 mA IB=0.004 mA
11. (i). IB=2.867 x 10-5A IC=2.867 x 10-3A IE=2.895 x 10-3A
(ii). VCB=9.214 V

LECTURE TEN

6. IC= IB=

LECTURE ELEVEN

4. 2.25x10-2 A

7. IC=5.15x10-3 A IE=5.25x10-3 A

LECTURE TWELVE

3. h11=6 Ω h12=0.8 h21=-0.8 h22=0.1 mhos

4. (a) The current gain=48.78

(b) The input impedance 14.04864 KΩ
(c) The voltage gain=40.26

LECTURE THIRTEEN

3. 92.04 dB
7. 31.2 V
9. 360 kΩ
10. 568. 18 Hz
12. Design diagram

128
 13. Wien Bridge Oscillator design

REFERENCES

1. Azaroff. L.V., and 1. J. Brophy. Electronic Procesws in Materialr. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1963.

2. Campbell, S. A. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

3. Kittel, C. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th edition. Berlin: Springer-Verlag,

1993.

4. Li, S. S. Semiconductor Physical Electronics, 2nd edition New York: Plenum

Press, 2002.

5. McKelvey, P. Solid State Physics for Engineering and Material Science. Malabar,
F.L Krieger, 1993.

6. Pierret, R. F. Semiconductor Device Fundamentals. Reading, MA: Addison-

Wesley, 1996.

7. Runyan, W. R., and K. E. Bean. Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Processing and

Technology Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990.

8. Singh, J. Semiconductor Devices: Basic Princip1es New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 2001.

9. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 5th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.

10. Streetman, B. G., and S. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

11. Sze, S. M. VLSI Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1983.

12. Wolfe, C. M., N. Holonyak. Jr., and G. E. Stillman. Physical Properties of

Semiconductor Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.

129