Introduction to Earthquake Engineering • Direction of particle movement divides the

CVS01 – Specialized Professional Course 1 waves into horizontal movement (SH) and
(Earthquake Engineering) vertical movement (SV).
• Fluids, has no shearing stiffness, and cannot
Earthquake Engineering (Steven L. Kramer) sustain s-waves
▪ deals with the effects of earthquakes on people Two types:
and their environment and with methods of
reducing those effects. • Love waves (L-waves) - cause surface
▪ It is very young discipline because most of its motion similar to that caused by S-waves,
development have just occurred in the last 30 to but with no vertical component. These
40 years always dispersive, because they can only
▪ It is very broad field (e.g., geology, seismology, propagate in a velocity-layered medium.
geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, • Raleigh waves - make a material
risk analysis, and other technical fields). Its particle oscillate in an elliptical path in
practice also requires consideration of social, the vertical plane (with horizontal
economic,and political factors. motion along the direction of energy
transmission.
Earthquake Engineering (Nazzal S. Armouti) • In some respect, similar to the wave
▪ Earthquake engineering is the science that produced by a rock thrown into the pond.
studies the behaviour of structures under INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
earthquake excitation and provides the rules on
how to design structures to survive seismic ▪ Crust/ Lithosphere – outermost layer of the
shocks. earth.
▪ The thickness of the crust ranges from 25 – 40
Internal Structure of the Earth km beneath the continents
▪ Earth’s equatorial diameter is roughly 12,740 ▪ it may be as thick as 60 – 70 km under some
km 97918 miles) young mountain's ranges.
▪ Polar diameter is rougly 12,700 km(7893 miles) ▪ It may be 5 km beneath the oceans
▪ The earth weighs some 5.4 x 1021 tons (4.9 x ▪ Internal structure of the crust is complex...but
1024 kg) can be represented by basaltic layer that is
▪ One the most important achievement in overlain by a granitic layer at continental
seismology was the determination of earth’s locations.
internal structure. ▪ The oceanic crust is more uniform and denser
than the continental crust.
Large earthquakes produce enough energy to ▪ The temperature of the crust is about 25°C and
cause measurable shaking at points all around the pressure within it is 1 atm
the world.
▪ Mantle/ Asthenosphere – about 2850 km thick
SEISMIC WAVES and can be divided into the upper mantle and
▪ Body waves, which travel through the interior lower mantle.
of the earth. ▪ It is composed of hot, dense ultrabasic igneous
rock in plastic state with a density of 5000 – 6000
Two types: kg/m3
▪ The mantle is cooler near the crust that at
• P-WAVES OR PRIMARY WAVES – are the first
greater depths but still has an average
waves to hit the seismographs when an
temperature of 4000°F.
earthquake strikes. They are longitudinal waves
▪ The mantle materials are in viscous, semi
which means that the direction of motion and
molten state, behave as a solid when subjected
propagation are the same. It involves successive
to rapidly applied stresses...but can slowly flow
compression and rarefaction of the materials
like fluids in response to long-term stresses.
through which they pass. (parallel)
• P-waves can travel through solids and fluids. A distinct change in wave propagation velocity
• P-wave travel faster than any other seismic marks the boundary between the crust and the
waves. underlying mantle known as Moho or
Mohorovicic discontinuity, named after the
• S-WAVES – also known as secondary, shear or
seismologist whobdiscovered it in 1909.
transverse waves, cause shearing deformations
as they travel through a material. The Mohorovicic Discontinuity In The Ivrea-
(perpendicukar) Verbano Zone - Italy
▪ Outer core/liquid core – is some 2260 km thick. activity along the oceanic ridges indicated that
As a liquid cannot transmit s-waves. As shown in these zones are under continuous deformation.
the Figure, the s-wave velocity drops to zero at
the core-mantle boundary, or Gutenberg Plate Tectonics –
discontinuity. Note also the precipitous drop in ▪ The original theory of continental drift
p-wave velocity. suggested images of massive continents pushing
▪ Inner core/solid core – a very dense (s.g. ≈ 15), through the seas and across the ocean floor. It
solid nickel-iron material compressed under was well known, however, that the ocean floor
tremendous pressures. Temperatures is was too strong to permit such motion, and the
theory was originally discredited by most earth
relatively uniform at over 5000°F
scientists. From this background, however, the
▪ Seismic wave paths illustrating reflection and modern theory of plate tectonics began to
refraction of seismic waves from the source evolve.
(focus) of the earthquake by the different layers ▪ The basic hypothesis of plate tectonics is that
of the earth. earth’s surface consists of a number of large,
▪ P - and S-waves can reach the earth's surface intact blocks called plates that move with each
between 0 and 103°, but the liquid nature of the other.
outer core allows only p-waves to reach the
surface between 143 and 180°. Six continental-sized plates: African, American,
Antarctic, Australia-Indian, Eurasian, and
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS Pacific. 14 subcontinental size are Caribbean,
Cocos,Nazca, Philippines, etc.
Continental Drift - in which the two plates move
away from each other, 1 inch to 2 inch per year. ▪ Smaller platelets, or microplates, have broken
▪ In 1915, German meteorologist Alfred off from the larger plates in the vicinity of many
Wegener – wasthe first to documented the of the major plate boundaries
separation of African and SouthAmerican ▪ This deformation of the plates can occur slowly
continents by comparing the geological and continuously (aseismic deformation) or can
structures, mineral deposits and fossils of both occur spasm odically in the form of earthquakes
flora and fauna from the two sides of the Atlantic (seismic deformation).
Ocean, but did his hypothesis on continental
drift was not appreciated by scientific Convection Currents-
community during his day because he failed to ▪ The most widely accepted explanation of the
provide the physical explanation behind the source of plate movement relies on the
separation process. requirement of thermomechanical equilibrium
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS of the earth’s materials.
▪ The upper portion of the mantle is in contact
▪ 225 million years ago all of the continents had with the relatively cool crust while the lower
formed a single landmass, called Pangaea. portion is in contact with the hot outer core.
▪ initially forming two continents, Laurasia and ▪ Temperature gradient must exist within the
Gondwanaland, about 200 million years ago mantle.
▪ 135 million years ago, Laurasia had split into • The variation of mantle density with
the continents of North America and Eurasia, temperature produces the unstable situation of
and Gondwanaland had divided into the denser (cooler) material resting on top of less
continents of India, South America, Africa, dense (warmer) material. Eventually, the cooler,
Antarctica and Australia. denser material begins to sink under the action
▪ These continents have continued to move and of gravity and the warmer, less dense material
have come to their current configuration, begins to rise. The sinking material gradually
including the collision of India with Eurasia warms and becomes less dense; eventually, it
about 50 million years ago. will move laterally and begin to rise again as
▪ In 1960, Harry Hess proposed the THEORY OF subsequently cooled material begins to sink. The
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING and suggested that the process is known as convection.
ocean floor is formed continuously by the
magma that rises up from within the mantle into Plate Boundaries-
the central gorges of the oceanic ridges • Plates move apart from each other at
▪ Richard Field who studied the GEOLOGY OF boundaries known as spreading ridges or
THE OCEAN FLOOR. The discovery of mountain spreading rifts. Molten rock from the underlying
chains (ridges) along the major oceans (see mantle rises to the surface where it cools and
Figure) and observations on the dense seismic becomes part of The spreading plates, thus the
plates ‘grow’ at spreading ridge. • Dip slip movement – is fault movement in the
• Spreading rates from approximately 2 to 18 direction of the dip (or perpendicular to the
cm/yr (1 to 7 in/yr); the highest rates are found strike)
in the Pacific Ocean ridges and the lowest along • Normal faults – occur when horizontal
the Mid- Atlantic Ridge component of dip slip movement is extensional
• Subduction zone boundaries where the and when the material above the inclined fault
relative movement of the plates is toward each (sometimes referred to as the hanging wall)
other. Found near the edges of continents. moves downward relative to the material below
• a trench is formed at the boundary between the fault (the foot wall).
plates.In fact, subduction zone boundaries are • Reverse faulting – when the horizontal
sometimes called trench boundaries. component of dip slip movement is
• Earthquakes are generated in the sloping compressional and the material above the fault
Benioff zone at the interface between the moves upward relative to the faults.
subducting and overriding plates. When the rate • Strike-slip Movement – occurring parallel to
of convergence is slow, sediments. accumulate the strike.
in an accretionary wedge on top of the crustal San Andreas right lateral strike-slip fault
rock, thus obscuring the trench.
• Oblique fault movement (i.e., movement with
A Benioff Zone, also called a Wadati-Benioff both dip-slip and strike-slip components) often
zone, is a seismically active area within a occurs. The 1971 San Fernando earthquake
subduction zone where earthquakes occur at ruptured the ground surface over a length of 15
varying depths as one tectonic plate dives km (9miles). The maximum vertical
beneath another, displacement (produced by reverse fault
movement) was 1.46 m (4.8 ft), and the
• Continental collisions – when plates carrying maximum horizontal displacement (from left
continents move toward each other which lateral strike-slip movement) was 2.13 m (7.0 ft)
eventually leads to the formation of mountain
ranges. Since one of the plates is destroyed here, ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
such a boundary is known as a destructive
margin In Harry Fielding Reid...who in 1911 developed
• Transform faults occur where plates move past the elastic rebound theory of earthquake
each other without creating new crust or mechanics, still accepted today
consuming old crust. The edges of the two plates Elastic Strain energy – is stored in the materials
scrape each other closely; This boundary is, thus, near the boundary as shear stresses increase on
also called a parallel or transform fault the fault planes that separate the plates. When
boundary. the shear stress reaches the shear strength of
• A fracture zone is a linear feature on the ocean the rock along the fault, the rock fails and the
floor—often hundreds, even thousands of accumulated strain energy is released.
kilometers long—resulting from the action of
offset mid-ocean ridge axis segments. They are a Elastic rebound theory – is the process of
consequence of plate tectonics. successive buildup and release of strain energy
in the rock adjacent to faults.
FAULTS - Steven L. Kramers
• the movement between two portions of the Elastic rebound theory attributes the
crust will occur on new or preexisting offsets in occurrence of tectonic earthquake to the gradual
the geologic structure of the crust known as accumulation of strain in a given zone and the
faults. subsequent gradual increase in the its of elastic
Fault Geometry forces stored. When stress builds up rapidly in
rock masses, faulting occurs, which leads to
• Strike of a fault is the horizontal line produced rupturing. The gradual accumulation and
by the intersection of the fault plane and subsequent release of stress and strain is
horizontal plane. described as elastic rebound.
• The azimuth of the strike (e.g., N60°E) is used
to describe the orientation of the fault with Mechanics of Elastic strain build-up and
respect to due north. rupture– Stage A: Slow deformation of rock in
• The downward slope of the fault plane is the plate vicinity of a plate boundary, Stage B:
rupture of the rock due to strain built up beyond
described by the dip angle.
elastic limit, Stage C: Bent rock regains its
Fault Movement original shape after the release of strain energy,
and Stage D: The displace rock after the released from all parts of the fault except for the
earthquake. stronger barriers; aftershocks then occur as the
rock adjusts to the new uniform stress field.
The elastic rebound theory requires the strain to ▪ Since both foreshocks and aftershocks are
build up rapidly up to the elastic limit of the rock. commonly observed, it appears that some strong
• Strain that has accumulated in the fault for a zones behave as asperities and others as barriers.
long time reaches its maximum limit (Figure 1.12
(a)) Other Sources of Seismic Activity
• A slip occurs at the fault and causes a rebound
(Figure 1.12(b)) ▪ Earthquakes have been associated with
volcanic activity. Shallow volcanic earthquakes
• A push and pull force initiates at the fault
(Figure 1.12(c)) may result from sudden shifting or movement of
• The situation is equivalent to two pairs of magma.
coupled forces acting suddenly (Figure 1.12(d)) ▪ Seismic waves may be produced by
• This action causes radial wave propagation. underground detonation of chemical explosives
▪ The moment of each couple is known as the or nuclear devices.
earthquake moment or seismic moment. ▪ Reservoir-induced earthquakes have been
subject of study and some controversy. Local
seismicity increased significantly after filling
some dams in USA. In 1967, five years after filling
of the Koyna reservoir had begun, a magnitude
of 6.5 earthquake killed 177 persons and injured
more than 2000 more. On those cases, seismic
activity appears to have been triggered by the
presence of the reservoir.
Seismic Moment
Geometric Notation
Mo = μAD
▪ The point at which rupture begins and the first
Reid was professor of applied mechanics at seismic waves originate is called the focus, or
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, from 1896 hypocenter, of the earthquake From the focus,
until he became emeritus professor in 1930. His the rupture spreads across the fault at velocities
early career was mainly concerned with the of 2 to 3 km/sec (1.2 to 1.9 miles/sec). Although
study of the structure, composition, and fault rupture can extend to the ground surface,
movement of glaciers. Later he became involved the focus is located at some focal depth (or
in the study of earthquakes and earthquake- hypocentral depth) below the ground surface.
recording devices. He was first to develop a
mechanism that explained how earthquakes ▪ The point on the ground surface directly above
were a result of faulting and not the reverse. He the focus is called the epicenter. The distance on
wrote an analysis of the 1906 San Francisco the ground surface between an observer or site
earthquake as part of the California State and the epicenter is known as the epicentral
Earthquake Investigation Commission report, distance, and the distance between the observer
Mechanics of the Earthquake. and the focus is called the focal distance or
hypocentral distance.
Asperities
"Asperities," as described by Kanamori and SIZE OF EARTHQUAKE
Stewart in 1978, refer to the stronger zones on a
▪ The severity of an earthquake can be assessed
fault plane, considered to be the areas of highest
in the following ways –
stress concentration that are most likely to slip
during an earthquake, causing significant seismic i. Quantifying its magnitude in terms of the
energy release; essentially, the "rough patches" energy released – measuring the amplitude,
on a fault where most movement occurs during frequency, and location of the seismic waves;
a quake. ii. Evaluating the intensity – considering the
▪ The asperity model of fault rupture assumes destructive effect of shaking ground on people,
that the shear stresses prior to an earthquake structures, and natural features.
are not uniform across the fault because of
stress in the weaker zones by creep or
foreshocks.
▪ In barrier model, the pre-earthquake stresses
on the fault are assumed to be uniform. When
the main earthquake occurs, stresses are
The Rossi-Forel (RF) scale of intensity, In 1935, Charles Richter used a Wood-Anderson
describing intensities with values ranging from I seismometer to define a magnitude scale for
to X, was developed in the 1880s and used for shallow, local (epicentral distances less than
many years. It has largely been replaced in about 600 km (375 miles)) earth quakes in
English-speaking countries by the modified southern California (Richter, 1935). Richter
Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale originally defined what is now known as the local
developed by the Italian seismologist Mercalli magnitude as the logarithm (base 10) of the
and modified in 1931to better rep resent maximum trace amplitude (in micro meters)
conditions in California (Richter, 1958). recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismometer
The Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) has located 100 km (62 miles) from the epicenter of
its own intensity scale, and the Medvedev- the earthquake. The Richter local magnitude
Spoonheuer- Karnik (MSK) scale is used in central (ML)is the best-known magnitude scale, but it is
and eastern Europe. not always the most appropriate scale for
description of earthquake size.
Surface Wave Magnitude
The surface wave magnitude is a worldwide
magnitude scale based on the amplitude of
Rayleigh waves with a period of about 20 sec. the
wave magnitude is obtained from
Ms = logA + 1.66 log∆ + 2.0
Body Wave Magnitude
The body wave magnitude (Gutenberg, 1945) is
a worldwide magnitude scale based on the
amplitude of the first few cycles of p-waves
which are not strongly influenced by the focal
depth (Bolt, 1989). The body wave magnitude
can be expressed as
mb = logA − logT + 0.01∆ + 5.9
Other Instrumental Magnitude Scales
Magnitude scales using different parts of the
instrumental record have also been proposed.
Aki (1969), showing that certain characteristics
of the coda are independent of the travel path,
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY developed a coda magnitude, Me> that could be
obtained from those characteristics. The
• Earthquake intensities are usually obtained duration magnitude, MD, which is based on the
from interviews of observers after the event. The total duration of the earthquake, can be used to
interviews are often done by mail. describe small earthquakes that are often of
• A plot of reported intensities at different more interest to seismologists than engineers
locations on a map allows contours of equal (Real and Teng, 1973). The Japanese
intensity, or isoseisms, to be plotted. Such a map Meteorological Agency uses long-period waves
is called an isoseismal map to determine a local magnitude scale, MJMA ,
for Japanese earthquakes.
EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
Moment Magnitude
In the past 60 years, the development of seismic
instruments, and our understanding of the As the total amount of energy released during an
quantities they measure, have increased earthquake increases, however, the ground-
dramatically. Seismic instruments allow an shaking characteristics do not necessarily
objective, quantitative measurement of increase at the same rate.
earthquake size called earthquake magnitude to
be made.
Richter Local Magnitude
 EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS AND EFFECTS LANDSLIDES
(MODULE 2) An earthquake can cause a slope to
become unstable by the
SIESMIC HAZARDS
inertial loading it imposes or by causing a
Hazards associated with earthquakes
loss of strength in the slope materials.
GROUND SHAKING Result from liquefaction phenomena,
Earthquake occurs, seismic waves but many others simply represent the
radiate away from the source and travel failures of slopes that were marginally stable
rapidly through the earth's crust.
under static conditions.
SOIL DEPOSITS 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan - This
Act as "filters" to seismic waves by large slide temporarily blocked a river
attenuating motion at certain frequencies following the
and amplifying it at others.
1995 Kobe Earthquake - building hangs over
STRUCTURAL HAZARDS the head scarp of a landslide in decomposed
Falling objects such as brick facings bedrock
and parapets on the outside of a structure or
heavy pictures and shelves within a structure RETAINING STRUCTURES FAILURE
have caused casualties in many earthquakes. Anchored bulkheads, quay walls, and
Interior facilities such as piping, lighting, and other retaining structures are frequently
storage systems can also be damaged during damaged in earthquakes.
earthquakes.
LIFELINE HAZARDS
LIQUEFACTION A network of facilities that provide
Seismic activity causes water the services required for commerce and
pressure increases in the pore spaces of public health can be found in virtually any
unconsolidated soil. developed area.
Lifelines - networks, which include
RELATED PHENOMENA
electrical power and telecommunications,
• Flow failures
transportation, water and sewage, oil and
strength of the soil drops
below the level needed to gas distribution, and waste storage systems.
maintain stability under static
conditions TSUNAMI AND SEICHE HAZARDS
• Lateral spreading Tsunami – long-period sea waves
Incremental produced by the rapid vertical seafloor
displacements during earthquake movements caused by fault rupture during
shaking. earthquakes.
• Sand Boils -usually have heights of less than I m
Presence of high and wavelengths (the distance between
groundwater crests) of several hundred kilometers
pressures whose eventual -the decreasing water depth causes
dissipation can produce
its speed to decrease and the height of the
• Fissuring
wave to increase.
Formation of a narrow
Seiches - Earthquake-induced waves
opening or crack of considerable
in enclosed bodies of water
length and depth usually
The high-water end of the seiche is
occurring from some breaking or
called wind set-up and at the opposite end
parting.
of this is the wind set-down, the low water
level, which is relative to the height and rise
of the seiche.
MITIGATION OF SEISMIC HAZARDS
the goal of the earthquake engineer
is to mitigate seismic hazards. For new
construction, hazard mitigation is embedded
in the process of earthquake-resistant
design.

SIGNIFICANT HISTORICAL EARTHQUAKES