INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
WAN NORAZI BINTI MIOR ISMAIL
ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INFECTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL
WHAT IS THE RESEARCH?
DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

Research is the process of

systematically obtaining
accurate answer to significant
and pertinent questions, by the
use of the scientific method of
gathering and interpreting
information.
 PURPOSE OF HEALTH RESEARCH
1.Promotes basic knowledge – is the infrastructure upon which drug treatment, disease
management or healthcare reforms depend.

2.Development of new tools – maybe drugs, vaccines, a diagnostic aid, pesticides, an operative
technique, an instrument or rating scales. These are all weapons in the war against disease.

3.Informs public – in the industrialized countries, substantial improvements in health has

resulted from changes in lifestyle, diet and activity-all of which are due to health
promotion on the basis of the outcomes of research.
 PURPOSE OF HEALTH RESEARCH
4.To analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship.
5.To developed new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and nonscientific problems.

6.To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems.

7.To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1.The research has a purpose - it aims to solve a problem by investigating it and

providing actionable evidence.
2.Scientific rigor - the research methodology has to be designed so as to attempt to
disprove the hypothesis in every way possible (experiments, estimation, post-estimation
tests, etc.).
3.The hypothesis should be testable - you should be able to logically test whether your
theory is empirically supported by data.
4.The findings should be replicable - that is, the findings should be consistent across
the board when the research is carried out multiple times in similar circumstances.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
5.The methodology should be constructed in such a way so as to give maximum accuracy (the
degree to which your data represents reality) and confidence (the probability that the estimations
are correct - the confidence interval).
6.The inferences drawn from the results of the estimations should be objective - the researcher
should be completely impartial when interpreting the results, and not be guided by biases or
emotions
7.The findings from your research should be applicable to the entire relevant population - that is,
they should be generalizable.
8.When researching a phenomenon, you are testing the hypothesis, which is a statement of
causality. Remember that causal investigation is all about trying to explain the variance of your
dependent variable. It is recommended that the model you construct to explain your dependent
variable should have as few explanatory variables as possible. Only decide to include additional
variables if they make an exponential contribution to the model’s explaining power. Therefore, in
scientific research, parsimony, or being economical, in building models is preferred.
LEGAL AND
ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
IN RESEARCH
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Respect for Persons/Autonomy
Respect for autonomy considers the individual as an independent person who is able to make
choices for him/herself. Within the research context, the researcher is required to make
certain that the principle of autonomy is adhered to for those participating in healthcare
research by ensuring
• The right to self-determination, which means that a person has the right to choose
whether or not to participate in a research study.
• The right to full disclosure, ensuring that a person has received information outlining the
nature of the study, including the likely risks and benefits, allowing them to make an
informed choice.
• The participant has the right to withdraw at any time with no consequences.
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Beneficence and Non-maleficence
Beneficence means “to do good” and positively help a person, and

non-maleficence means “to do no harm”. Research should benefit client/patient participants and
contribute to their welfare (Treacy and Hyde, 1999) and it should benefit both individual participants
and society as a whole (Parahoo 1997). Participants have the right not to be harmed. Researchers
have an ethical duty to balance potential benefits against potential risks and to minimize potential
risk to the greatest extent possible, thus safeguarding and protecting participants.
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Justice
The principle of justice is synonymous with fairness and equity and researchers are obliged to treat
participants fairly and equitably before, during and after the research study.

Veracity
Veracity involves the concepts of truth about the research study and the absence of deception. Individuals
have the right to be told the truth and not to be deceived about any aspect of the research. All aspects of
a research project require explanation by the researcher, who must make every effort to ensure the
participants understand the implications throughout the study. The principle of veracity is linked with
respect for autonomy

Fidelity
Fidelity involves the concept of trust . Participants place trust in researchers and this necessitates a
commitment to protect them. The researcher must ensure that the participants have an understanding of
the risks, and thus foster a trusting relationship.
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Confidentiality
The researcher is responsible for ensuring confidentiality and privacy of the research participants
and the data obtained from them. Personal information obtained by the researcher must not lead to
identification of research participants and this information should not be made available to others
without their consent.
Include public interest & safety and when the researcher believes that there may be a risk in non-
disclosure.

The researcher must have clear justification for the disclosure of information and should seek
support from the research supervisor, ethics committee and other relevant persons. The decision
should be clearly documented.

Researchers can ensure that confidentiality is maintained by assigning an identification

number to each participant, so that identifying information is effectively secured and
that identifying information is not entered on a computer system or other potentially
accessible database.
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Informed Consent

The purpose of informed consent is to protect research participants and allow them to make informed
choices. Obtaining written informed consent to participate in research is one of the most important ethical
considerations in the research process and it ensures that the principle of “respect for persons” is
acknowledged and adhered to. Consent to participate in research should never be presumed.

Essential components required for a valid informed consent are:

Disclosure of information
Comprehension
Competency
Voluntariness (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001).
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Disclosure of Information
Participants must be fully informed of all aspects and proceedings of the research project,
including the risks, benefits and the right to withdraw from the project at any time.

Disclosure includes:

Aims of research
Methodology to be used
Anticipated risks and benefits
Anticipated discomfort or inconvenience
Participant’s right to withdraw from the research at any time without prejudice.
 LEGAL AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Voluntariness
Consent to participate must be given voluntarily and is only valid if given without intimidation (Watts,
1997), coercion, persuasion, manipulation or inducement. The researcher must ensure the right of each
participant to determine his or her voluntary participation in research.
 Written Informed Consent
The consent form should provide a written explanation about the research study, including the purpose of
the study, study design, sampling procedure and potential benefits and risks and voluntary nature of the
study. A consent form is signed and dated by the research participant and the researcher. Where
research involves the use of questionnaires, completion of the questionnaire implies consent is being
given. Elements Of Informed Consent:

• Title of study
• Researcher(s) and credentials identified
• Study population identified
• Purpose of study
• Study procedures and steps for data collection described
• Potential risks described
• Potential benefits described
• Anonymity or confidentiality assured
• Assurance given that participation is voluntary
• Right to refuse to participate or withdraw at any time assured
• Offer made to answer all questions
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Feasibility - Feasibility of a study refers to the ease with which the
particular study can be completed.

Purpose of the study - The purpose of the study describes why the
study has been designed. The purpose reflects in the intent of the
investigator and use of the knowledge derived.

Theory/Conceptual Framework - A conceptual framework is a series

of concepts or ideas connected by statements about relationships that
exist among them.
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Propositions - Propositions are statements that suggest a specific relationship
between two or more concepts.

Variable - A variable is a concept (construct) that has been so specifically

defined that precise observations and therefore measurement can be
accomplished.

Bias - Bias is a feeling or influence that strongly favors the outcome of a

particular finding in a research project. When the chance of bias is not
addressed, the reliability of the scientific findings is considered to be highly
questionable.
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Problem Statement - The problem statement presents the topic under study,
provides a rationale for the choice of topic, represents a synthesis of fact and
theory, and directs the selection of the design. A research question or a
statement about the purpose of the study.

Quantitative variables - Quantitative variable is one who values or categories

consists of numbers and if differences between its categories can be expressed
numerically (age, income, size, etc).

Qualitative variables - The qualitative variable is one which consists of discrete

categories rather than numerical (sex, religion, etc).
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Limitation - Limitations indicate the weakness of the entire study, as the
researcher perceives them.

Independent variables - The independent variable (often referred to in

experimental or quasi-experimental study as the experimental or treatment
variable) is an antecedent to other variables. In an experiment or quasi-
experiment, It is the variable that is manipulated, and is effect on the
dependent variable is observed.

Dependent variables - The dependent variable represents the area of

interest under investigation. It reflects the effect of the response to the
independent variable.
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Conceptual Definition - The abstract or theoretical meaning of a
concept being studied. An identification of the personal knowledge or
connotative meaning of a word. These meanings are often difficult to
express; the meaning is “known” but not easily put into words.

Operational Definition - Operational definition of variables refers to

definition of terms in a way that the explanation used in the study that
help in defining variables in measurable and quantifiable.

Probability Sampling - Probability sampling is the process of selecting

samples based on probability theory.
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Population - The population is the entire group of persons or objects that is
of interest to the investigator.

Sample - The sample is a subset of the population selected by investigator

to participate in a research study.

Variable - A Variable is a concept (construct) that has been so specifically

defined that precise observations and therefore measurement can be
accomplished.
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Validity - Internal validity refers to whether the independent variable
actually made a difference and results are not due to extraneous
factors. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of the
study can be generalized to the larger population.

Incidence - The term incidence describes the number of new cases

within a specific time period.

Prevalence - Prevalence is a mathematical reflection of the number of

cases of a health problem in a given population.
 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN
RESEARCH
Data - Pieces of information obtained in the course of the study.

Hypothesis - A statement of the expectations of the researcher concerning the

relationships of the variables under study.

Abstract - An abbreviated summary of the research problem, methodology,

findings and significance.

Method - Techniques for gathering evidence. The various ways of proceeding in

gathering information.

Methodology - The underlying theory and analysis of how research does or

should proceed, often influenced by discipline.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
1.Basic Research
•Adds to the existing body of knowledge
i.Experimental Research – the researcher introduces conditions that influence participants or
manipulates the environment.
ii.Non Experimental Research – where researcher avoids influencing objects.

2.Applied Research
•Purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate, practical problem.

3. Exploratory Research
•Investigation into a problem or situation which provides insights to the researcher.
•The research is meant to provide details where a small amount of information exists.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
4.Descriptive Research
•Describes what is – researcher do not manipulate the environment.
•Describes, interprets and clarifies what in the present – often done with surveys – may be done by
observation or an observational instrument.

5.Diagnostic Research
•Identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon.

6.Evaluation Research
•Investigates how well a program, practice or policy is working.

7.Action Research
•Initiated to solve an immediate problem.
•Refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative and analytical research methods designed to
diagnose problems or weaknesses
RESEARCH
APPROACH
 RESEARCH APPROACH

•Quantitative methods are used to examine the relationship between variables with the
primary goal being to analyze and represent that relationship mathematically through statistical
analysis. This is the type of research approach most commonly used in scientific research
problems.

•Qualitative methods are chosen when the goal of the research problem is to examine,
understand and describe a phenomenon. These methods are a common choice in social
science research problems and are often used to study ideas, beliefs, human behaviors and
other research questions that do not involve studying the relationship between variables.

•Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers
combines elements of qualitative and quantitative approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and
quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the purpose of
breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.
 Quantitative approach
Experimental Research

• Provides a basis for comparing 2 or more conditions.

• Control or accounts for the effects of extraneous factors, providing the
highest degree of confidence in the validity of outcomes.
• Enables the researcher to draw meaningful conclusions about
observed differences.
• Randomized controlled trial, single subject designs, sequential clinical
trials, evaluation research, quasi-experimental research, meta-
analysis.
True experimental design Quasi-experimental design
• A true experiment has one main • Is simply defined as not a true
component – randomly assigned experiment.
groups. • Since the main component of a true
• This translates to every participant experiment is randomly assigned
having an equal chance of being in the groups, this means a quasi-
experimental group where they are experiment does not have randomly
subject to a manipulation or the control assigned groups.
group where they are not manipulated
 Quantitative approach
Non-experimental

Descriptive research

Designed to discover new meaning and to provide new knowledge, where there is very little
know about phenomena of interest.
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation.
It is simple and more specific than an exploratory study.
It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides information for formulating more
sophisticated studies.
Data collection by using one or more appropriate methods; observation, interviewing and
mail questionnaire.
Correlational research

Correlational research is used to explore the relationships or links

between variables. It does not describe the nature of the
relationship as in descriptive research and it cannot be used to
determine causation as experimental research.

It measures the extent to which two variables are related. The

purpose of the research it to determine which variables are
interacting and what type of interaction is occurring. This allows
the researcher to make predictions based on the relationship
found.
Observational research
Observational research (or field research) is a type of correlational
(i.e., non-experimental) research in which a researcher observes
ongoing behaviour.

Cohort study
For research purposes, a cohort is any group of people who are linked in some
way.
For instance, a birth cohort includes all people born within a given time frame.
Researchers compare what happens to members of the cohort that have been
exposed to a particular variable to what happens to the other members who
have not been exposed.
 Cross-sectional Study

▪ Is an observational study in which exposure and disease

are determined at the same point in time (snapshot) in a
given population.
▪ To give clear picture of a particular situation.
Case study

Is a research methodology that has commonly used in social sciences.

Is a research strategy and an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon
within its real-life context.
Case studies are based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group or
event to explore the causes of underlying principles.
Is a descriptive and exploratory analysis of a person, group or event.
A case study research can be single or multiple case studies, includes quantitative
evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions.
Case studies are analysis of persons, groups, events, decisions, periods, policies,
institutions or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods.
RESEARCH
PROCESS