Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)

Scanning probe microscopy techniques

S
Scanning
i ttunneling
li microscopy
i (STM)

Spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy (SP-STM)

At i force
Atomic f microscopy
i (AFM)

Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)

Separated with respect to the different signals recorded

STM tunneling
STM: t li currentt

SP-STM: spin polarized tunneling current

AFM: van der Waals forces

f

MFM: Magnetic stray field

R. Wiesendanger, Scanning Probe Microscopy and Spectroscopy (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge UK, 1994)
C.J. Chen, Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (Oxford University Press, New York, 1993)
H. Lüth, Solid surfaces, interfaces and thin films, (Springer-Verlag, 2001).
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Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)

1982 – Invention of Scanning

Tunneling Microscope
1986 – Nobel Prize

2
Example: a SiGe “pyramid” on Si substrate
Cheops
Nanopyramid

Each
ac b brick
c
consits of only 2
atoms

Relative size to
the real Cheops
pyramid:

7 nm /139 m=
5 x 10-11 !

STM
85×85x7 nm3

3
Tunneling through a 1D rectangular barrier

U potential energy. If a
particle („
p („lion“)) has energy
gy
E<U, it cannot overcome
the barrier

The situation changes

g in
quantum mechanics!

C.J. Chen -
Introduction to
Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy
Oxford University
y
Press, New York 1993

4
 Particle – wave duality
Example: a SiGe “pyramid” on Si substrate
Two-slit experiments reveal that photons, the quantum entities giving rise to light and other
forms of electromagnetic radiation, act both like particles and like waves. A single photon will
strike the screen in a particular place, like a particle (left)- But as more photons strike the
screen they begin to create an interference pattern (center).
screen, (center) Such a pattern could occur only
if each photon had actually gone through both slits, like a wave (right).

Particle Wave

STM
85×85x7 nm3

www.fortunecity.com/ emachines/e11/86/qphil.html
5
 Tunneling through a 1D rectangular barrier

Schrödinger equation

Solution in the metal: electrons move

freely as plane (sinusoidal waves)

Probability density (probability per unit volume) of finding the

ψ (z )
2
particle at position z

Solution in the barrier: the wave-function decays exponentially

Note: metal-to-vacuum tunneling is used in field-emission guns for SEM

and TEM. Electric fiels is used to lower the barrier U. 6
 Metal – vacuum – metal tunneling

Barrier

ψ (z )

z W
z=W

φ is the work function of the metal (energy barrier to vacuum or minimum energy
needed to remove an electron from the metal)
If the tip is far from the sample the tunnel probability is very small... No current
will be observed. But how far is far?! 7
 Tunneling current

Probability of findinding an n-state electron at the tip surface (z=W):

Tunneling current: Probabilityy drops

p significantly
g y if
gap is >0.1 nm. Very high vertical
resolution (only limited by
electronic or mechanical noise –
statistical error)
Local density of states (LDOS):

Number of states (energy levels) per unit energy and volume

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 Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)

Tunneling current

(
I T ~ V exp − KW ϕ )
K is a constant; W – distance between two electrodes; V – applied voltage between electrodes;
φ is average work function of the electrode materials

Tunneling current is dependent:

• on the
h di
distance to the
h surface
f ((topographical
hi l contrast))

• on the work function of the electrodes (work function contrast)

Exponential dependence on the thickness – high sensitivity

Changes of the distance in the order of 1 Å results in change of the tunneling

current of about one order of magnitude

Separation distance has to be controlled with accuracy in the order of 0.1 Å

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 Experimental set-up for STM

General remarks:

Measurements are typically carried out

in ultra high vacuum

Variable temperatures are of advantage

for the STM studies

Mechanical vibrations have to be suppressed

Tip and sample are driven by piezoelements

G. Binnig et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982)

G Binnig et al
G. al., Phys.
Phys Rev.
Rev Lett. 50 120 (1983)
Lett 50,
K. Besocke, Surface Sci. 181, 145 (1987)

Pi
Piezoeffect?!
ff t?!
10
 Suppression of mechanical vibrations

Various spring systems are used Eddy current damping?!

STM head is surrounded by Cu plates => eddy current damping

http://www.fkf.mpg.de/kern/facilities/variable-temperature-scanning-tunneling-microscopy-vt-stm.html 11
 Preparation of STM tips

Preparation of ultra-sharp STM tip

Typically Ir (Pt-Ir alloys) or W tips

Pt Ir tip can be cut using scissors from the wire
Pt-Ir

W tip is etched in KOH or NaOH solution

Flashing in UHV is required to remove WOx from the tip

Usually realized by applying high voltage between the grounded electrode

and the as-prepared WOx tip

http://www.fz-juelich.de/pgi/pgi-3/EN/Forschung/Functions/ChargeTransportThroughNanostructures 12
/chargeTransportThroughNanostructures_node.html
 Preparation of STM tips

SEM image of a tip

6H2O+6e- 3H2(g)+6OH- (Cathode)

W(s)+8OH
W( ) 8OH- WO42-
2 +4H
4H2O+6e
O 6 - (Anode)
(A d )
W(s)+2OH-+2H2O WO42-+3H2(g) 13
 Information measured using STM

Tunneling current

(
I T ~ V exp − KW ϕ )
K is a constant; W – distance between two electrodes; V – applied voltage between electrodes;
φ is average work function of the electrode materials

Tunneling current is dependent:

• on the distance to the surface (topographical contrast)

• on the work function of the electrodes (work function contrast)

Measurement of the sample’s topography

Topography can be measured by keeping tunneling current constant (constant current mode)
The compensation voltage on z-piezodrive as a function of the voltage on x- and y-piezodrives
In this case, it is assumed that φ is constant
The tunneling current is proportional to the applied bias and to the Fermi-level LDOS of the
sample at the tip surface (the electronic „cloud“ extends above the sample)
This means th
Thi thatt an STM image
i collected
ll t d att constant
t t currentt represents
t a constant
t t Fermi-
F i
level LDOS contour of the sample surface at a distance W from the surface
14
 Information measured using STM

Tunneling current

(
I T ~ V exp − KW ϕ )
K is a constant; W – distance between two electrodes; V – applied voltage between electrodes;
φ is average work function of the electrode materials

Tunneling current is dependent:

• on the distance to the surface (topographical contrast)

• on the work function of the electrodes (work function contrast)

Measurement of the work function of the sample

Work function changes can be measured by recording the first derivative of IT versus W

M d l ti off W is
Modulation i used
d and
d th
the signal
i l on z-piezodrive
i d i iis d
detected
t t d with
ith llock-in
k i ttechnique
h i

ϕ ≈ (∂ ln IT / ∂z ) 2
z=W
15
 Lateral resolution of STM

Since the current decays exponentially with the distance, only a narrow region around the
tip apex contributes to the signal. Let‘s make an estimation...
For κ = 10 nm-1 and R = 1 nm, the „cylinder“ containing 50% of the current has a diameter
of ~0.5 nm
Even better resolution is seen experimentally. Why?
16
 Origin of atomic resolution (semiconductors)

Problem:
the corrugation observed
on some metals was by
far larger than expected

Solution: lower-simmetry and extended orbitals of the tip can lead to

enhanced resolution 17
 Origin of atomic resolution (metals)

Tungsten
T t tips
ti are characterized
h t i db by clusters
l t with
ith d-like
d lik states,
t t leading
l di tto
enhanced resolution
18
 Au on Si(111): origin of STM contrast

Measurements in constant current mode and the derivative of IT on distance allows to separate
the changes due to topography and work function

Contrast is given by the inhomogenieties in work function,

function ii.e.
e by Au islands on Si(111)

G. Binnig et al.,
Surface Sci 157 L373 (1985)
Sci. 157,

19
 Measurements with positive and negative bias voltage

N
Negative
ti bibias of
f the
th STM ti
tip with
ith respectt to
t the
th sample
l
Tunneling occurs from occupied tip states into empty surface states or conduction-band
states in the semiconductor

Positive bias of the STM tip with respect to the sample

Elastic tunneling of the electrons into the semiconductor is not possible

Only occupied states can be reached

Tunneling current is due to the occupied surface states or valence-band states 20

 Mapping of the valence and conduction bands
Chan in value of
Changing f the bias vvoltage
lta e and its si
sign
n tto access densit
density of
f states in Si(111)
Si(111)-(2x1)
(2x1)

J.A. Stroscio et al., Phys.

y Rev. Lett. 57, 2579 ((1986))
J.R. Chelikowsky et al., Phys. Rev. B 10, 5095 (1986)

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 Manipulations with STM at the nanoscale

In addition to the imaging the surface of the sample and resolving its electronic structure, STM
can be used to manipulate atoms at the surface to fabricate certain nanostructures

D.M. Eigler et al., Nature 344, 524 (1990)

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 Quantum corral

In addition to the imaging the surface of the sample and resolving its electronic structure,
STM can be used to manipulate atoms at the surface to fabricate certain nanostructures

48 Fe atoms were brought

together on the Cu(111)
surface using STM tip

Ring diameter: 142.6 Å

Fabrication temperature: 4 K

M.F. Crommie et al.,

Science 262, 218 (1993)

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Cross-sectional STM

Example: InAs/GaAs quantum dots

Contrast mainly given by difference in

lattice parameter (vertical expansion of
InAs)

Alternative approach to TEM to measure embedded

nanostructures. Difference: in TEM electrons cross the
whole sample (information is averaged). In STM only
the surface is measured
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