1078 CHAPTER 34 Electromagnetic Waves

A large oscillator (bottom) and circular, octagonal, and square receivers used by Heinrich Hertz.

QuickLab Additionally, Hertz showed in a series of experiments that the radiation gener-
ated by his spark-gap device exhibited the wave properties of interference, diffrac-
Some electric motors use commuta-
tion, reflection, refraction, and polarization, all of which are properties exhibited
tors that make and break electrical
contact, creating sparks reminiscent by light. Thus, it became evident that the radio-frequency waves Hertz was generat-
of Hertz’s method for generating ing had properties similar to those of light waves and differed only in frequency
electromagnetic waves. Try running and wavelength. Perhaps his most convincing experiment was the measurement of
an electric shaver or kitchen mixer the speed of this radiation. Radio-frequency waves of known frequency were re-
near an AM radio. What happens to
flected from a metal sheet and created a standing-wave interference pattern whose
the reception?
nodal points could be detected. The measured distance between the nodal points
enabled determination of the wavelength ␭. Using the relationship v ⫽ ␭f (Eq.
16.14), Hertz found that v was close to 3 ⫻ 108 m/s, the known speed c of visible
light.

y 34.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The properties of electromagnetic waves can be deduced from Maxwell’s equa-
E tions. One approach to deriving these properties is to solve the second-order dif-
E ferential equation obtained from Maxwell’s third and fourth equations. A rigorous
mathematical treatment of that sort is beyond the scope of this text. To circumvent
c this problem, we assume that the vectors for the electric field and magnetic field
c in an electromagnetic wave have a specific space – time behavior that is simple but
z B x consistent with Maxwell’s equations.
B
To understand the prediction of electromagnetic waves more fully, let us focus
Figure 34.2 An electromagnetic our attention on an electromagnetic wave that travels in the x direction (the direc-
wave traveling at velocity c in the tion of propagation). In this wave, the electric field E is in the y direction, and the
positive x direction. The electric magnetic field B is in the z direction, as shown in Figure 34.2. Waves such as this
field is along the y direction, and
the magnetic field is along the z di- one, in which the electric and magnetic fields are restricted to being parallel to a
rection. These fields depend only pair of perpendicular axes, are said to be linearly polarized waves.1 Further-
on x and t. more, we assume that at any point P, the magnitudes E and B of the fields depend

1 Waves having other particular patterns of vibration of the electric and magnetic fields include circu-
larly polarized waves. The most general polarization pattern is elliptical.
 34.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 1079

upon x and t only, and not upon the y or z coordinate. A collection of such waves
from individual sources is called a plane wave. A surface connecting points of
equal phase on all waves, which we call a wave front, would be a geometric plane.
In comparison, a point source of radiation sends waves out in all directions. A sur-
face connecting points of equal phase is a sphere for this situation, so we call this a
spherical wave.
We can relate E and B to each other with Equations 34.3 and 34.4. In empty
space, where Q ⫽ 0 and I ⫽ 0, Equation 34.3 remains unchanged and Equation
34.4 becomes

冖
B ⴢ ds ⫽ ␮ 0⑀ 0
d⌽E
dt
(34.5)

Using Equations 34.3 and 34.5 and the plane-wave assumption, we obtain the fol-
lowing differential equations relating E and B. (We shall derive these equations
formally later in this section.) For simplicity, we drop the subscripts on the compo-
nents E y and Bz :
⭸E ⭸B
⫽⫺ (34.6)
⭸x ⭸t
⭸B ⭸E
⫽ ⫺ ␮ 0⑀ 0 (34.7)
⭸x ⭸t
Note that the derivatives here are partial derivatives. For example, when we evalu-
ate ⭸E/⭸x , we assume that t is constant. Likewise, when we evaluate ⭸B/⭸t, x is
held constant. Taking the derivative of Equation 34.6 with respect to x and com-
bining the result with Equation 34.7, we obtain
⭸2E
⭸x 2
⫽⫺
⭸
⭸x 冢 ⭸B⭸t 冣 ⫽ ⫺ ⭸t⭸ 冢 ⭸B⭸x 冣 ⫽ ⫺ ⭸t⭸ 冢⫺ ␮ ⑀ 0 0
⭸E
⭸t 冣
⭸2E ⭸2E
⫽ ␮ 0⑀ 0 (34.8)
⭸x 2 ⭸t 2

In the same manner, taking the derivative of Equation 34.7 with respect to x and
combining it with Equation 34.6, we obtain

⭸2B ⭸2B
⫽ ␮ 0⑀ 0 2 (34.9)
⭸x 2 ⭸t

Equations 34.8 and 34.9 both have the form of the general wave equation2 with
the wave speed v replaced by c, where

1
c⫽ (34.10) Speed of electromagnetic waves
√␮ 0⑀ 0
Taking ␮ 0 ⫽ 4␲ ⫻ 10 ⫺7 T⭈m/A and ⑀0 ⫽ 8.854 19 ⫻ 10⫺12 C2/N⭈m2 in Equation
34.10, we find that c ⫽ 2.997 92 ⫻ 10 8 m/s. Because this speed is precisely the
same as the speed of light in empty space, we are led to believe (correctly) that
light is an electromagnetic wave.

2 The general wave equation is of the form (⭸2y/⭸x 2 ) ⫽ (1/v 2 )(⭸2y/⭸t 2 ), where v is the speed of the

wave and y is the wave function. The general wave equation was introduced as Equation 16.26, and it
would be useful for you to review Section 16.9.
1080 CHAPTER 34 Electromagnetic Waves

y
y y y y

E
z z z z
B
x
y y y y
z

E z z z z

y y y y
B

c z z z z

(a) (b)

Figure 34.3 Representation of a sinusoidal, linearly polarized plane electromagnetic wave mov-
ing in the positive x direction with velocity c. (a) The wave at some instant. Note the sinusoidal
variations of E and B with x . (b) A time sequence illustrating the electric and magnetic field vec-
tors present in the yz plane, as seen by an observer looking in the negative x direction. Note the
sinusoidal variations of E and B with t.

The simplest solution to Equations 34.8 and 34.9 is a sinusoidal wave, for
which the field magnitudes E and B vary with x and t according to the expressions

Sinusoidal electric and magnetic E ⫽ E max cos(kx ⫺ ␻t) (34.11)

fields
B ⫽ B max cos(kx ⫺ ␻t) (34.12)
where E max and B max are the maximum values of the fields. The angular wave num-
ber is the constant k ⫽ 2␲/␭, where ␭ is the wavelength. The angular frequency is
␻ ⫽ 2␲f, where f is the wave frequency. The ratio
␻/k equals the speed c :
␻ 2␲f
⫽ ⫽ ␭f ⫽ c
k 2␲/␭
We have used Equation 16.14, v ⫽ c ⫽ ␭f, which relates the speed, frequency, and
wavelength of any continuous wave. Figure 34.3a is a pictorial representation, at
one instant, of a sinusoidal, linearly polarized plane wave moving in the positive x
direction. Figure 34.3b shows how the electric and magnetic field vectors at a fixed
location vary with time.

Quick Quiz 34.1

What is the phase difference between B and E in Figure 34.3?

Taking partial derivatives of Equations 34.11 (with respect to x) and 34.12

 34.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 1081

(with respect to t), we find that

⭸E
⫽ ⫺kE maxsin(kx ⫺ ␻t)
⭸x
⭸B
⫽ ␻B maxsin(kx ⫺ ␻t)
⭸t
Substituting these results into Equation 34.6, we find that at any instant
kE max ⫽ ␻B max
E max ␻
⫽ ⫽c
B max k
Using these results together with Equations 34.11 and 34.12, we see that

E max E
⫽ ⫽c (34.13)
B max B

That is, at every instant the ratio of the magnitude of the electric field to the
magnitude of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave equals the
speed of light.
Finally, note that electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle
(which we discussed in Section 16.4 with respect to mechanical waves) because the
differential equations involving E and B are linear equations. For example, we can
add two waves with the same frequency simply by adding the magnitudes of the
two electric fields algebraically.

• The solutions of Maxwell’s third and fourth equations are wave-like, with Properties of electromagnetic
both E and B satisfying a wave equation. waves
• Electromagnetic waves travel through empty space at the speed of light
c ⫽ 1/√␮ 0⑀ 0 .
• The components of the electric and magnetic fields of plane electromagnetic
waves are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. We can summarize the latter property by saying that elec-
tromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
• The magnitudes of E and B in empty space are related by the expression
E/B ⫽ c.
• Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.

EXAMPLE 34.1 An Electromagnetic Wave

A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave of frequency 40.0 MHz (b) At some point and at some instant, the electric field
travels in free space in the x direction, as shown in Figure has its maximum value of 750 N/C and is along the y axis.
34.4. (a) Determine the wavelength and period of the wave. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
at this position and time.
Solution Using Equation 16.14 for light waves, c ⫽ ␭f ,
and given that f ⫽ 40.0 MHz ⫽ 4.00 ⫻ 107 s⫺1, we have Solution From Equation 34.13 we see that
c 3.00 ⫻ 10 8 m/s
␭⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 7.50 m E max 750 N/C
f 4.00 ⫻ 10 7 s⫺1 B max ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 2.50 ⫻ 10 ⫺6 T
c 3.00 ⫻ 10 8 m/s
The period T of the wave is the inverse of the frequency:
Because E and B must be perpendicular to each other and
1 1 perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation (x in this
T⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 2.50 ⫻ 10 ⫺8 s
f 4.00 ⫻ 10 7 s⫺1 case), we conclude that B is in the z direction.
1082 CHAPTER 34 Electromagnetic Waves

y (c) Write expressions for the space-time variation of the

components of the electric and magnetic fields for this wave.
E = 750j N/C
Solution We can apply Equations 34.11 and 34.12 directly:
E ⫽ E max cos(kx ⫺ ␻t ) ⫽ (750 N/C) cos(kx ⫺ ␻t )
B c
x
B ⫽ B max cos(kx ⫺ ␻t ) ⫽ (2.50 ⫻ 10 ⫺6 T ) cos(kx ⫺ ␻t )
where
z ␻ ⫽ 2␲f ⫽ 2␲(4.00 ⫻ 107 s⫺1 ) ⫽ 2.51 ⫻ 108 rad/s

Figure 34.4 At some instant, a plane electromagnetic wave mov- 2␲ 2␲

k⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 0.838 rad/m
ing in the x direction has a maximum electric field of 750 N/C in the ␭ 7.50 m
positive y direction. The corresponding magnetic field at that point
has a magnitude E /c and is in the z direction.

Let us summarize the properties of electromagnetic waves as we have de-

scribed them:

Optional Section
Derivation of Equations 34.6 and 34.7
To derive Equation 34.6, we start with Faraday’s law, Equation 34.3:

y
冖 E ⴢ ds ⫽ ⫺
d⌽B
dt
Let us again assume that the electromagnetic wave is traveling in the x direction,
dx with the electric field E in the positive y direction and the magnetic field B in the
positive z direction.
E
Consider a rectangle of width dx and height ᐉ lying in the xy plane, as shown
E + dE
ᐉ in Figure 34.5. To apply Equation 34.3, we must first evaluate the line integral of
E ⴢ ds around this rectangle. The contributions from the top and bottom of the
rectangle are zero because E is perpendicular to ds for these paths. We can ex-
press the electric field on the right side of the rectangle as
z x
B

Figure 34.5 As a plane wave

E(x ⫹ dx, t) ⬇ E(x, t) ⫹
dE
dx 冥t constant
dx ⫽ E(x, t) ⫹
⭸E
⭸x
dx

passes through a rectangular path while the field on the left side is simply E(x, t).3 Therefore, the line integral over
of width dx lying in the xy plane, this rectangle is approximately

冖
the electric field in the y direction
varies from E to E ⫹ d E. This spa-
tial variation in E gives rise to a E ⴢ ds ⫽ E(x ⫹ dx, t) ⭈ ᐉ ⫺ E(x, t)⭈ ᐉ ⬇ (⭸E/⭸x) dx ⭈ ᐉ (34.14)
time-varying magnetic field along
the z direction, according to Equa- Because the magnetic field is in the z direction, the magnetic flux through the rec-
tion 34.6.
tangle of area ᐉ dx is approximately ⌽B ⫽ Bᐉ dx. (This assumes that dx is very
small compared with the wavelength of the wave.) Taking the time derivative of

3 Because dE/dx in this equation is expressed as the change in E with x at a given instant t, dE/dx is

equivalent to the partial derivative ⭸E /⭸x . Likewise, dB/dt means the change in B with time at a particu-
lar position x, so in Equation 34.15 we can replace dB/dt with ⭸B/⭸t .
 34.3 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 1083

the magnetic flux gives y

d⌽B
dt
⫽ ᐉ dx
dB
dt 冥 x constant
⫽ ᐉ dx
⭸B
⭸t
(34.15) E

Substituting Equations 34.14 and 34.15 into Equation 34.3, we obtain

冢 ⭸E⭸x 冣 dx ⭈ ᐉ ⫽ ⫺ ᐉ dx ⭸B⭸t z

dx
B
ᐉ
x

⭸E ⭸B B + dB
⫽⫺
⭸x ⭸t
Figure 34.6 As a plane wave
This expression is Equation 34.6. passes through a rectangular path
of width dx lying in the xz plane,
In a similar manner, we can verify Equation 34.7 by starting with Maxwell’s
the magnetic field in the z direc-
fourth equation in empty space (Eq. 34.5). In this case, we evaluate the line inte- tion varies from B to B ⫹ d B. This
gral of B ⴢ ds around a rectangle lying in the xz plane and having width dx and spatial variation in B gives rise to a
length ᐉ, as shown in Figure 34.6. Noting that the magnitude of the magnetic field time-varying electric field along the
changes from B(x, t) to B(x ⫹ dx , t) over the width dx, we find the line integral y direction, according to Equation
34.7.
over this rectangle to be approximately

冖 B ⴢ ds ⫽ B(x, t)⭈ ᐉ ⫺ B(x ⫹ dx, t)⭈ ᐉ ⬇ ⫺(⭸B/⭸x) dx ⭈ ᐉ (34.16)

The electric flux through the rectangle is ⌽E ⫽ Eᐉ dx, which, when differentiated
with respect to time, gives
⭸⌽E ⭸E
⫽ ᐉ dx (34.17)
⭸t ⭸t
Substituting Equations 34.16 and 34.17 into Equation 34.5 gives
⫺(⭸B/⭸x) dx ⭈ ᐉ ⫽ ␮ 0⑀ 0 ᐉ dx(⭸E/⭸t)
⭸B ⭸E
⫽ ⫺ ␮ 0⑀ 0
⭸x ⭸t
which is Equation 34.7.

34.3 ENERGY CARRIED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they propagate through space they can
transfer energy to objects placed in their path. The rate of flow of energy in an
Poynting vector
electromagnetic wave is described by a vector S, called the Poynting vector,
which is defined by the expression

1
S⬅ EⴛB (34.18)
␮0

The magnitude of the Poynting vector represents the rate at which energy flows
through a unit surface area perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Thus, the magnitude of the Poynting vector represents power per unit area. The di-
rection of the vector is along the direction of wave propagation (Fig. 34.7). The SI Magnitude of the Poynting vector
units of the Poynting vector are J/s ⭈m2 ⫽ W/m2. for a plane wave