CLL231: Fluid Mechanics for Chemical

Engineers

Somnath Ghosh
[email protected]

Video: https://www.youtube.com/
1
 Transportation of fluids
(Munson Ch12 (8th Ed.); White Ch: 11 (7th Ed.) )

2
Handling of fluids
So far, we have discussed about fluids in motion without paying much attention about the piping
and the machines to transport fluids. The engineering applications are concerned with practical
problems in transporting fluids from one place to another. Sometimes, solids are handled by
similar methods by suspending them in liquids and pump them as a slurry or by conveying them
in a high velocity gas stream.
For handling fluids, two types of machines are involved:- Pumps; that add energy to the fluids
and turbines; that extract energy from the fluids.
Along with the pumps, (Bio-)chemical engineering is also concerned about the pipes, fittings and
valves. Fluids are transported in pipes or tubing, which is usually circular in cross-section. For
piping connections, joints, fittings and valves are used that induces some minor losses during
fluid flow. Valves (gate and glove valves, ball valves, check valves, etc.) are very important to
control the flow; using a control loop, valves can be automized. General valves are one way, and
all have moving parts.
Valvular conduit
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Valvular conduit

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23009-y

*https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=suIAo0EYwOE 5
Pumps
Pumps are used to transport fluids; it is used to transmit or add energy to fluids. It increases
mechanical energy of the fluid by increasing its velocity, pressure or elevation- or by all three.
electrical energy → mechanical energy→ hydraulic energy

Positive displacement pump: moves the fluid by trapping and forcing it through an outlet.
reciprocating: moves the fluid with one or more oscillating pistons, plungers, or
membranes.
peristaltic: fluid is moved by squeezing the flexible tubing.
rotary: moves fluid by using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that captures and
draws in the liquid
Centrifugal pump: mechanical energy of the fluid is increased by centrifugal action.
Axial flow pump: fluid moves out axially with respect to the pump. 6
Centrifugal pump
Most common radial flow pump is the centrifugal pump. The liquid enters through a suction
connection concentric to the axis of the impeller. Impeller has radially casted vanes and rotates
inside the casing. Liquid flows outward and leaves the impeller with
higher velocity and collected in a spiral casing called volute; then
Leaves the pump through a tangential discharge. In the volute velocity
head is converted to pressure head.
pump is installed in a pipeline to provide the energy needed to draw
liquid from a reservoir and discharge a constant volumetric flow rate at the exit of the pipeline.
We can apply Bernoulli’s equation at the inlet and exit of the pump to calculate the pump head.
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝑝 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑇
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝1 𝑢1 2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡: 𝐻𝐼 = + + 𝑧1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝2 𝑢2 2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒: 𝐻𝐼𝐼 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ∆𝑝
𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝑧1 ≈ 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢1 ≈ 𝑢2 ; 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑; 𝐻𝑝 ≈ 𝐻𝐼𝐼 − 𝐻𝐼 = − =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 7
Centrifugal pump
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝜂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑊𝑝 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻𝑝 = 𝜂𝑊𝑝
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚ሶ = 𝑄𝜌; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝐻
ሶ 𝑝
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑚𝑊
ሶ 𝑝= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑; 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑚𝐻
ሶ 𝑝
𝜂
Suction lift and cavitation
Cavitation: It’s a process in which the static pressure of a liquid goes below the liquid's vapor
pressure, which leads to the formation of small vapor-filled cavities. This phenomenon can cause
a loss in efficiency as well as structural damage to the pump.
NPSH: to avoid cavitation, inlet pressure must exceed the vapor pressure by a certain value,
called the net positive suction head (NPSH).
𝑝𝑠 𝑢𝑠 2 𝑝𝑣
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = + −
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 = − Δ𝑍 − ℎ 𝑇 (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡)
𝜌𝑔
For the proper pump operation, required NPSHR is always less than/equal to 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 .
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Centrifugal pump
Pumps in series (identical)

A B

continuity: QA=QB
energy: total pump head: HPT = HA+HB

Pumps in parallel (identical)

continuity: Q=QA+ QB
energy: total pump head: HPA = HPB
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Blowers and compressors
Blowers and compressors are machines that move and compress gasses. Blowers are high seed
rotary devices that develop a maximum pressure of 2 atm. Compressors which are also positive
displacement or centrifugal machines, discharge gas/air at pressures from 2 atm to thousand atm.
In these devices, density of air changes.
For isentropic (adiabatic and frictionless) process, pressure and temperature change are expressed
1
𝑇𝑏 𝑝𝑏 1−𝑘
by the following eq.: = where, Ta,Tb are inlet and outlet absolute temperatures
𝑇𝑎 𝑝𝑎
respectively; Pa,Pb are the corresponding inlet and outlet pressures; k is the specific heat ratio
(Cp/Cv).
For a given gas, temperature ratio increases with an increase in compression ratio. This ratio is a
basic parameter in the engineering of blowers and compressors. In those machines, mechanical,
kinetic and potential energies do not change appreciably; also, on the assumption of frictionless
𝑝𝑏 𝑑𝑝
process; work done, 𝑊𝑝 = ‫𝑝׬‬ (from, modified Bernoulli)
𝑎 𝜌

11
Blowers and compressors
𝑝 𝑝𝑎
For an adiabatic compression (ideal gas): = that leads to
𝜌𝑘 𝜌𝑎 𝑘
1
𝑝𝑏 𝑑𝑝 𝑘𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏 1−𝑘
𝑊𝑝 = ‫𝜌 𝑝׬‬ = −1
𝑎 (𝑘−1)𝜌𝑎 𝑝𝑎
𝑝 𝑝𝑎
For an isothermal compression (ideal gas): = that leads to
𝜌 𝜌𝑎
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝 𝑅𝑇𝑎 𝑝
𝑊𝑝 = ‫𝑏 𝑝׬‬ = ln 𝑏 = ln 𝑏 ; 𝑅 → 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 → 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑎 𝜌 𝜌𝑎 𝑝𝑎 𝑀 𝑝𝑎

For a given compression ratio, the work requirement in isothermal compression is less than that
of adiabatic compression.

12
Compressible flow
Compressibility is a property of a fluid, characterized by the bulk modulus of elasticity.
Physically, it is a measure of fluid volume or density with respect to the pressure. Bulk modulus
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
of a fluid is defined as: 𝐸 = −∀ = 𝜌
𝑑∀ 𝑑𝜌
Fluids with large value of E are incompressible fluid. For water at atmospheric pressure 𝐸 =
2.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐸 = 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎. During flow condition, depending on change in volume or
density with respect to the pressure change, compressible/incompressible fluid is defined.
Rough estimate during flow through a nozzle/pipe:
1
O ∆𝑝 = O 𝜌𝑉 2
2
∆𝜌 1
⇒O 𝐸 = O 𝜌𝑉 2
𝜌 2
∆𝜌 1 𝑉2 𝐸 𝑚
⇒O =O ; = 𝑎2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 → 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ~330 𝑎𝑡 0℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌 2 𝐸/𝜌 𝜌 𝑠
∆𝜌 1 𝑉2 ∆𝜌 1
⇒O =O ⇒ O =O 𝑀𝑎2
𝜌 2 𝑎2 𝜌 2
∆𝜌 1
Condition for incompressibility: ≤ 0.05 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎2 ≤ 0.05 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎 < 0.33
𝜌 2 13
Speed of sound

mass conservation:
𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⇒ 𝜌𝐴𝑎 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝐴 𝑎 − 𝑑v
𝜌𝑑v = adρ
x-momentum equation:
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 = −𝜌𝐴𝑎2 + 𝜌𝐴𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑑v
𝑑p = ρ𝑎𝑑v
combining above equations:
1
𝑑𝑝 2
𝑑p = 𝑎2 𝑑ρ ⇒a= (for isentropic process i.e. adiabatic and reversible)
𝑑𝜌 𝑠
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝
for isentropic process: = constant ⇒ = 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝜌𝑘 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝐶𝑝
which gives: 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑣 14
Stagnation properties
From first law of thermodynamics: ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑈 → 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚;
𝑄 → 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚; 𝑊 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
W Steady flow energy equation can be written as:
flow in flow out 𝑄 𝑢𝑖 2 𝑢𝑒 2 𝑊
+ ℎ𝑖 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑖 = ℎ𝑒 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 +
𝑚 2 2 𝑚
Q
if there is no change in elevation and no work is done by or on the system:
𝑄 𝑢𝑒 2 𝑢𝑖 2 𝑑𝑄 𝑢2
= ℎ𝑒 − ℎ 𝑖 + − ⇒ = 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑
𝑚 2 2 𝑚 2
and the mechanical energy equation can be written as (for no change in elevation and no frictional loss):
𝑑𝑝 𝑢2
+𝑑 =0
𝜌 2
It is convenient to use the stagnation state of the fluid as a reference state for compressible
flow calculations. The stagnation state is associated with zero flow velocity and an entropy
value that corresponds to the entropy of the flowing fluid. 15
Stagnation properties
𝑢2
If the compressible fluid is brought to rest, then: ℎ + = ℎ0 → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
2
From thermodynamics, we know (for ideal gas): dℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 ⇒ ℎ − ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 − 𝑇0
𝑢2
So, 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 − 𝑇0 + =0
2
𝐶𝑝 𝑘𝑅
also, 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶v = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝐶𝑝 = and 𝑢2 = 𝑀𝑎2 𝑎2 = 𝑀𝑎2 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝐶v 𝑘−1
𝑘𝑅 𝑢2 𝑀𝑎2 𝑘𝑅𝑇
Then, 𝑇 −𝑇 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘−1 0 2 2
𝑇 𝑘−1
⇒ 0= 𝑀𝑎2 + 1 𝑇0 → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇 2 𝑘
𝑝2 𝑇2 𝑘−1 𝜌2 𝑘
also, = =
𝑝1 𝑇1 𝜌1
𝑘
𝑝0 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠; = 1+ 𝑀𝑎2 𝑝0 → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑝 2
1
𝜌0 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
and = 1+ 𝑀𝑎2 𝜌0 → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌 2
𝑇0 𝑝0 𝜌0
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 = 1.4; = 1 + 0.2𝑀𝑎 ; = 1 + 0.2𝑀𝑎2
2 3.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1 + 0.2𝑀𝑎2 2.5
𝑇 𝑝 𝜌 16
17