8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com.

Introduction : Satellite Communication

UNIT I
Introduction : Origin of Satellite communication, Current state of
satellite communication. Orbital aspect of satellite communication:
Orbital mechanism, equation of orbit, locating satellite in orbit, orbital
elements, and orbital perturbation.
Space craft subsystem: Attitude and orbit control system,
Telemetry tracking and command power system, and communication
subsystem.

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole Department of Electronics Engineering, K. D. K. College of Engineering, Nagpur. Page 1
8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

1. INTRODUCTION

1. Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile
applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV
and radio broadcasting.
2. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The
power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint,
complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations.
3. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area.
When the area is focused, then the emissions don‟t go outside that designated area and thus
minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.
4. Satellite‟s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the
designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be
designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life
time.
5. The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is
subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

1.2 BASICS
Satellites orbit around the earth. Depending on the application,these orbits can be circular or
elliptical. Satellites in circular orbits always keep the same distance to the earth‟s surface
following a simple law:
The attractive force Fg of the earth due to gravity equals m·g (R/r)2
The centrifugal force Fc trying to pull the satellite away equals m·r·ω2
The variables have the following meaning:
m is the mass of the satellite;
R is the radius of earth with R = 6,370 km;
r is the distance of the satellite to the centre of the earth;
g is the acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2;
ω is the angular velocity with ω = 2·π·f, f is the frequency of the rotation.
To keep the satellite in a stable circular orbit, the following equation must hold:

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole Department of Electronics Engineering, K. D. K. College of Engineering, Nagpur. Page 2
8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Fg = Fc, i.e., both forces must be equal. Looking at this equation the first thing to notice is
that the mass m of a satellite is irrelevant (it appears on both sides of the equation).
Solving the equation for the distance r of the satellite to the centre of the earth results in the
following equation:
The distance r = (g·R2/(2·π·f)2)1/3
From the above equation it can be concluded that the distance of a satellite to the earth‟s
surface depends on its rotation frequency.

Important parameters in satellite communication are the inclination and elevation angles. The
inclination angle δ (figure 1.1) is defined between the equatorial plane and the plane described
by the satellite orbit. An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the satellite is exactly above
the equator. If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the closest point to the earth is called
the perigee.

The elevation angle ε (figure 1.2) is defined between the centre of the satellite beam and the plane
tangential to the earth‟s surface. A so called footprint can be defined as the area on earth where the
signals of the satellite can be received.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES
Weather Forecasting
Certain satellites are specifically designed to monitor the climatic conditions of earth. They
continuously monitor the assigned areas of earth and predict the weather conditions of that region.
This is done by taking images of earth from the satellite. These images are transferred using assigned
radio frequency to the earth station. (Earth Station: it‟s a radio station located on the earth and used
for relaying signals from satellites.)
These satellites are exceptionally useful in predicting disasters like hurricanes, and monitor the
changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.

Radio and TV Broadcast

These dedicated satellites are responsible for making 100s of channels across the globe available for
everyone. They are also responsible for broadcasting live matches, news, world-wide radio services.
These satellites require a 30-40 cm sized dish to make these channels available globally.

Military Satellites
These satellites are often used for gathering intelligence, as a communications satellite used for
military purposes, or as a military weapon. A satellite by itself is neither military nor civil. It is the
kind of payload it carries that enables one to arrive at a decision regarding its military or civilian
character.

Navigation Satellites
The system allows for precise localization world-wide, and with some additional techniques, the
precision is in the range of some meters. Ships and aircraft rely on GPS as an addition to traditional
navigation systems. Many vehicles come with installed GPS receivers. This system is also used,
e.g., for fleet management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of theft.

Global Telephone
One of the first applications of satellites for communication was the establishment of international
telephone backbones. Instead of using cables it was sometimes faster to launch a new satellite. But,
fiber optic cables are still replacing satellite communication across long distance as in fiber optic

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

cable, light is used instead of radio frequency, hence making the communication much faster (and of
course, reducing the delay caused due to the amount of distance a signal needs to travel before
reaching the destination.).
Using satellites, to typically reach a distance approximately 10,000 kms away, the signal needs to
travel almost 72,000 kms, that is, sending data from ground to satellite and (mostly) from satellite to
another location on earth. This cause‟s substantial amount of delay and this delay becomes more
prominent for users during voice calls.

Connecting Remote Areas

Due to their geographical location many places all over the world do not have direct wired
connection to the telephone network or the internet (e.g., researchers on Antarctica) or because of the
current state of the infrastructure of a country. Here the satellite provides a complete coverage and
(generally) there is one satellite always present across a horizon.

Global Mobile Communication

The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication is to extend the area of coverage. Cellular
phone systems, such as AMPS and GSM (and their successors) do not cover all parts of a country.
Areas that are not covered usually have low population where it is too expensive to install a base
station. With the integration of satellite communication, however, the mobile phone can switch to
satellites offering world-wide connectivity to a customer. Satellites cover a certain area on the earth.
This area is termed as a „footprint‟ of that satellite. Within the footprint, communication with that
satellite is possible for mobile users.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION FOR SATELLITE

Allocation of frequencies to satellite services s a complicated process which requires international
coordination and planning.
This is done as per the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To implement this frequency
planning, the world is divided into three regions:
Ø Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia
Ø Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Ø Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and south-west Pacific.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Within these regions, he frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services. Some of them
are listed below.

Ø Fixed satellite service: Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks Used for transmitting
television signals to cable companies
Ø Broadcasting satellite service: Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live Cricket matches etc
Ø Mobile satellite services: This includes services for:
Land Mobile
Maritime Mobile
Aeronautical mobile
Ø Navigational satellite services : Include Global Positioning systems
Ø Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search and Rescue service

Below are the frequencies allocated to these satellites:

Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:
Ø VHF: 01-0.3 Ø UHF: 0.3-1.0 Ø L-band: 1.0-2.0
Ø S-band: 2.0-4.0 Ø C-band: 4.0-8.0 Ø X-band: 8.0-12.0
Ø Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 (Ku is Under K Band)
Ø Ka-band: 18.0-27.0 (Ka is Above K Band)
Ø V-band: 40.0-75.0 Ø W-band: 75-110 Ø Mm-band: 110-300
Ø μm-band: 300-3000

Based on the satellite service, following are the frequencies allocated to the satellites:
Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:
Ø VHF: 01-0.3 ---Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services
Ø L-band: 1.0-2.0 --- Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services
Ø C-band: 4.0-8.0 --- Fixed Satellite Service
Ø Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 --- Direct Broadcast Satellite Services

TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS)

Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) :

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from Earth, these
satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three
satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that is; their
footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these satellites is circular.

There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these
satellites is 15 years.
1) The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface of the
earth.
2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion of
earth, that is eastward.
3) The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 00.

Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple factors which
make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.

1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit. Over the
period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth‟s gravitational force has no effect on these
satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)
2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them deviate
from their orbit.
3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of satellite from the
earth station.

These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these satellites are
operating as backbones for the telephone networks.

Disadvantages of GEO:
Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more problems receiving these satellites due
to the low elevation above a latitude of 60°, i.e., larger antennas are needed in this case. Shading of

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation further away from the equator
limit transmission quality.
The transmit power needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery powered devices.
These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. The biggest problem for voice and also data
communication is the high latency as without having any handovers, the signal has to at least travel
72,000 kms.
Due to the large footprint, either frequencies cannot be reused or the GEO satellite needs special
antennas focusing on a smaller footprint. Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth. As LEOs circulate on a
lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95 to 120 minutes. LEO systems try to
ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide
a high quality communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around
ten minutes.

Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough for
voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with Omni-
directional antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1W. The delay for packets delivered
via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms). The delay is comparable to long-distance wired
connections (about 5–10 ms). Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to
the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions
and so better global coverage.
These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing an providing mobile communication services (due
to lower latency).

Disadvantages:
The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global coverage is to be
reached. Several concepts involve 50–200 or even more satellites in orbit. The short time of visibility
with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for connection handover between different
satellites. The high number of satellites combined with the fast movements resulting in a high

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

complexity of the whole satellite system. One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about
five to eight years due to atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1.
Assuming 48 satellites and a lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two
months. The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story. Other factors are the need for
routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to communicate around the world. Due to the
large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders and receivers are most
likely in the same footprint.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, oth in terms of their orbit and due
to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a
dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system.
These satellites move more slowly relative to the earth‟s rotation allowing a simpler system design
(satellite periods are about six hours). Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger
populations, so requiring fewer handovers.

Disadvantages: Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70–80 ms.
the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.
The above three are the major three categories of satellites, apart from these, the satellites are also
classified based on the following types of orbits:

Sun- Synchronous Orbits satellites:

These satellites rise and set with the sun. Their orbit is defined in such a way that they are always
facing the sun and hence they never go through an eclipse. For these satellites, the surface
illumination angle will be nearly the same every time. (Surface illumination angle: The illumination
angle is the angle between the inward surface normal and the direction of light. This means that the
illumination angle of a certain point of the Earth's surface is zero if the Sun is precisely overhead and
that it is 90 degrees at sunset and at sunrise.)

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar
time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight,
and the dawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is
around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night.

Hohmann Transfer Orbit:

This is an intermediate orbit having a highly elliptical shape. It is used by GEO satellites to reach
their final destination orbits. This orbit is connected to the LEO orbit at the point of perigee forming
a tangent and is connected to the GEO orbit at the point of apogee again forming a tangent.

Prograde orbit:
This orbit is with an inclination of less than 90°. Its direction is the same as the direction as the
rotation of the primary (planet).

Retrograde orbit:
This orbit is with an inclination of more than 90°. Its direction is counter to the direction of rotation
of the planet. Only few satellites are launched into retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel
required to launch them is much greater than for a prograde
orbit. This is because when the rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward component
of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at its launch latitude.

Polar Orbits
This orbit passes above or nearly above both poles (north and south pole) of the planet on each of
its revolutions. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees. These orbits are
highly inclined in shape.

KEPLER’S LAWS
Johann Kepler developed empirically three laws of planetary motion, based on conclusions drawn
from the extensive observations of Mars by Tycho Brahe (taken around the year 1600). While they
were originally defined in terms of the motion of the planets about the Sun, they apply equally to the
motion of natural or artificial satellites about the Earth.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Kepler‟sfirst law states that the satellite follows an elliptical path in its orbit around the Earth. The
satellite does not necessarily have uniform velocity around its orbit.

Kepler‟s second law states that the line joining the satellite with the centre of the Earth sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.

Kepler‟s third law states that the cube of the mean distance of the satellite from the Earth is
proportional to the square of its period.

Kepler’s First Law

Ø The path followed be a satellite (in our case artificial satellite) around the primary (a planet and
in our case Earth) will be an ellipse.
Ø “The orbit of every planer is an ellipse with sun at one of the two foci. “
Ø An ellipse has two focal points.
Let us consider F1 and F2. The centre of mass of the two body system, known as the barycentre as
always cantered at one foci. Due to the great difference between the masses of the planet (Earth) and
the satellite, centre of mass always coincides with the centre of Earth and hence is always at one foci.
(Note: Ellipse: A regular oval shape, traced by a point moving in a plane so that the sum of its
distances from two other points (the foci) is constant.
Foci: The center of interest and in our case centre of the ellipse.)
Parameters associated with the 1st law of Kepler:
o Eccentricity (e): it defines how stretched out an ellipse is from a perfect circle.
o Semi-Major axis (a): It is the longest diameter, a line that runs through the centre and both foci,
its ends being at the widest points of the shapes. This line joins the points of apogee.
o Semi-Minor axis (b): the line joining the points of perigee is called the Semi-Minor axis.
The value of e could be determined by: e = (√a2 – b2) / a

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Foci F1 and F2, Semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b of an ellipse.

Kepler’s Second Law
Ø “For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane focussed at
the barycentre”.
Ø With respect to the laws governing the planetary motion around the sun, tis law could be stated
as “A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps our equal area during equal intervals of time”.

The areas A1 and A2 swept out in unit intervals of time.

From figure and considering the law stated above, if satellite travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1
second, then areas A1 and A2 will be equal.
Ø The same area will be covered everyday regardless of where in its orbit a satellite is. As the First
Keplerian law states that the satellite follows an elliptical orbit around the primary, then the
satellite is at different distances from the planet at different parts of the orbit. Hence the satellite
has to move faster when it is closer to the Earth so that it sweeps an equal area on the Earth.

Ø This could be achieved if the speed of the satellite is adjusted when it is closer to the surface of
the Earth in order to make it sweep out equal areas (footprints) of the surface of the Earth.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Kepler’s Third Law

Ø The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between
the two bodies.
Ø The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of its orbit.
Ø This law shows the relationship between the distances of satellite from earth and their orbital
period.
Ø Example: suppose satellite Satellite-I is four times as far from Earth as Satellite-II. Then I must
traverse four times the distance of II in each orbit. Now considering the speed of I and II,
suppose I travels at half the speed of II, then in order to maintain equilibrium with the reduced
gravitational force (as I is four times away from Earth than what II is), then in all it will
require 4 x 2 = 8 times as long for I to travel an orbit in agreement with the law which comes
down to (82 = 43).
Ø Symbolically: P2 α a3 (P2 is directly proportional to a3)
Where P is the orbital period; a is the semi-major axis a3 = µ/n2
Where n is the mean motion of satellite in radians per second and µ is the Earth‟s geocentric
gravitational constant. µ = 3.986005 x 1014 m3/sec2

DEFINITIONS
1. Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
2. Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
3. Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the Earth. It is the major
axis of the orbit. One-half of this line‟s length is the semi-major axis equivalents to
satellite‟s mean distance from the Earth.
4. Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to
south.
5. Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to
north.
6. Inclination: the angle between the orbital plane and the Earth‟s equatorial plane. Its
measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going from East to North. Also,
this angle is commonly denoted as i.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

7. Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the orbital plane at the
Earth‟s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.
8. Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the satellite with
reference to the perigee.

Orbital Elements
Following are the 6 elements of the Keplerian Element set commonly known as orbital elements.
1. Semi-Major axis (a)
2. Eccentricity (e)
They give the shape (of ellipse) to the satellite‟s orbit.
3. Mean anomaly (M0) It denotes the position of a satellite in its orbit at a given reference
time.
4. Argument of Perigee It gives the rotation of the orbit‟s perigee point relative to the orbit‟s
nodes in the earth‟s equatorial plane.
5. Inclination
6. Right ascension of ascending node
They relate the orbital plane‟s position to the Earth.

ORBITAL PERBUTATIONS
Theoretically, an orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth is considered to be a perfect sphere and
the force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal force. This force is supposed to balance the
gravitational pull of the earth.
In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the motion of the satellite. These forces
are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along with the atmospheric drag.
Effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on geostationary earth satellites where as the
atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit satellites.

SATELLITE SUBSYSTEMS
An operating communications satellite system consists of several elements or segments, ranging
from an orbital configuration of space components to ground based components and network
elements. The particular application of the satellite system, for example fixed satellite service,

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

mobile service, or broadcast service, will determine the specific elements of the system. A generic
satellite system, applicable to most satellite applications, can be described by the elements shown in
Figure.
The basic system consists of a satellite (or satellites) in space, relaying information between two or
more users through ground terminals and the satellite. The information relayed may be voice, data,
video, or a combination of the three. The user information may require transmission via terrestrial
means to connect with the ground terminal.
The satellite is controlled from the ground through a satellite control facility, often called the
master control center (MCC), which provides tracking, telemetry, command, and monitoring
functions for the system.
The space segment of the satellite system consists of the orbiting satellite (or satellites) and the
ground satellite control facilities necessary to keep the satellites operational.
The ground segment, or earth segment, of the satellite system consists of the transmit and
receive earth stations and the associated equipment to interface with the user network. Ground
segment elements are unique to the type of communications satellite application, such as fixed
service, mobile service, broadcast service, or satellite broadband, and will be covered in later
chapters where the specific applications are discussed.
The space segment equipment carried aboard the satellite can be classified under two
functional areas: the bus and the payload, as shown in Figure 3.1

• Bus The bus refers to the basic satellite structure itself and the subsystems that support the satellite.
The bus subsystems are: the physical structure, power subsystem, attitude and orbital control
subsystem, thermal control subsystem, and command and telemetry subsystem.

Payload The payload on a satellite is the equipment that provides the service or services intended for
the satellite. A communications satellite payload consists of the communications equipment that
provides the relay link between the up- and downlinks from the ground. The communications
payload can be further divided into the transponder and the antenna subsystems.

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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole Department of Electronics Engineering, K. D. K. College of Engineering, Nagpur. Page 16
8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL SYSTEM

Satellite Bus :
The basic characteristics of each of the bus subsystems are described in the following subsections.
Physical Structure. The physical structure of the satellite provides a ‘home’ for all the components
of the satellite. The basic shape of the structure depends of the method of stabilization employed to
keep the satellite stable and pointing in the desired direction, usually to keep the antennas properly
oriented toward earth.
Two methods are commonly employed: spin stabilization and three axis or body stabilization.
Both methods are used for GSO and NGSO satellites. Figure 3.3 highlights the basic
configurations of each, along with an example of a satellite of each type.

Spin Stabilization :
A spin stabilized satellite is usually cylindrical in shape, because the satellite is required to be
mechanically balanced about an axis, so that it can be maintained in orbit by spinning on its axis.
For GSO satellites, the spin axis is maintained parallel to the spin axis of the earth, with spin
rates in the range of 30 to 100 revolutions per minute. The spinning satellite will maintain its correct
attitude without additional effort, unless disturbance torques are introduced. External forces such as
solar radiation, gravitational gradients, and meteorite impacts can generate undesired torques.
Internal effects such as motor bearing friction and antenna subsystem movement can also
produce unwanted torque in the system. Impulse type thrusters, or jets, are used to maintain spin rate
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8th Semester Electronics E-II Sat. Com. Introduction : Satellite Communication

and correct any wobbling or nutation to the satellite spin axis. The entire spacecraft rotates for spin-
stabilized satellites that employ omnidirectional antennas.

Three-axis Stabilization :
A three-axis stabilized satellite is maintained in space with stabilizing elements for each of the three
axes, referred to as roll, pitch, and yaw, in conformance with the definitions first used in the aircraft
industry. The entire body of the spacecraft remains fixed in space, relative
to the earth, which is why the three-axis stabilized satellite is also referred to as a body stabilized
satellite.
Active attitude control is required with three-axis stabilization. Control jets or reaction
wheels are used, either separately or in combination, to provide correction and control for each of the
three axes.
A reaction wheel is basically a flywheel that absorbs the undesired torques that would shift
spacecraft orientation. Fuel is expended for both the control jets and for the reaction wheels, which
must periodically be ‘unloaded’ of momentum energy that builds up in the wheel.
The three-axis stabilized satellite does not need to be symmetric or cylindrical, and most tend
be box-like, with numerous appendages attached. Typical appendages include antenna systems and
solar cell panels, which are often unfurled after placement at the on-orbit location.

Attitude Control
The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space with respect to earth. Attitude control is
necessary so that the antennas, which usually have narrow directional beams, are pointed correctly
towards earth. Several forces can interact to affect the attitude of the spacecraft, including
gravitational forces from the sun, moon, and planets; solar pressures acting on the spacecraft body,
antennas or solar panels; and earth’s magnetic field. Orientation is monitored on the spacecraft by
infrared horizon detectors, which detect the rim of earth against the background of space. Four
detectors are used to establish a reference point, usually the center of the earth, and any shift in
orientation is detected by one or more of the sensors.
Orbital Control

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Orbital control, often called station keeping, is the process required to maintain a satellite in its
proper orbit location. It is similar to, although not functionally the same as, attitude control,
discussed in the previous section.
GSO satellites will undergo forces that would cause the satellite to drift in the east-west
(longitude) and north-south (latitude) directions, as well as in altitude, if not compensated for with
active orbital control jets. Orbital control is usually maintained with the same thruster system as is
attitude control.

Thermal Control
Orbiting satellites will experience large temperature variations, which must be controlled in the harsh
environment of outer space. Thermal radiation from the sun heats one side of the spacecraft, while
the side facing outer space is exposed to the extremely low temperatures of space. Much of the
equipment in the satellite itself generates heat, which must be controlled.
Low orbiting satellites can also be affected by thermal radiation reflected from the earth itself.

TELEMETRY, TRACKING, COMMAND AND MONITORING

The tracking, telemetry, command, and monitoring (TTC&M) subsystem provides essential
spacecraft management and control functions to keep the satellite operating safely in orbit.
The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are usually separate from the
communications system links. TTC&M links may operate in the same frequency bands or in other
bands.
TTC&M is most often accomplished through a separate earth terminal facility specifically
designed for the complex operations required to maintain a spacecraft in orbit. One TTC&M facility
may maintain several spacecraft simultaneously in orbit through TTC&M links to each vehicle.
Figure 3.7 shows the typical TTC&M functional elements for the satellite and ground facility for a
communications satellite application.
A control signal is generated that activates attitude control devices to restore proper
orientation. Gas jets, ion thrusters, or momentum wheels are used to provide active attitude control
on communications satellites.

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The satellite TTC&M subsystems comprise the antenna, command receiver, tracking and telemetry
transmitter, and possibly tracking sensors. Telemetry data are received from the other subsystems of
the spacecraft, such as the payload, power, attitude control, and thermal control. Command data are
relayed from the command receiver to other subsystems to control such parameters as antenna
pointing, transponder modes of operation, battery and solar cell changes, etc.
The elements on the ground include the TTC&M antenna, telemetry receiver, command
transmitter, tracking subsystem, and associated processing and analysis functions. Satellite control
and monitoring is accomplished through monitors and keyboard interface. Major operations of
TTC&M may be automated, with minimal human interface required.
The telemetry function involves the collection of data from sensors on-board the spacecraft and the
relay of this information to the ground. The telemetered data include such parameters as voltage and
current conditions in the power subsystem, temperature of critical subsystems,
status of switches and relays in the communications and antenna subsystems, fuel tank pressures, and
attitude control sensor status. A typical communications satellite telemetry link could involve over
100 channels of sensor information, usually in digital form, but occasionally in analog form for
diagnostic evaluations. The telemetry carrier modulation is typically frequency or phase shift keying
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(FSK or PSK), with the telemetry channels transmitted in a time division multiplex (TDM) format.
Telemetry channel data rates are low, usually only a few kbps.
Command is the complementary function to telemetry. The command system relays specific
control and operations information from the ground to the spacecraft, often in response to telemetry
information received from the spacecraft. Parameters involved in typical command
links include changes and corrections in attitude control and orbital control;
• antenna pointing and control;
• transponder mode of operation;
• battery voltage control.
The command system is used during launch to control the firing of the boost motor, deploy
appendages such as solar panels and antenna reflectors, and ‘spin-up’ a spin-stabilized spacecraft
body. Security is an important factor in the command system for a communications
satellite.
The structure of the command system must contain safeguards against intentional or
unintentional signals corrupting the command link, or unauthorized commands from being
transmitted and accepted by the spacecraft.
Command links are nearly always encrypted with a secure code format to maintain the health and
safety of the satellite. The command procedure also involves multiple transmissions to the
spacecraft, to assure the validity and correct reception of the command, before the execute
instruction is transmitted. Telemetry and command during the launch and transfer orbit phases
usually requires a backup TTC&M system, since the main TTC&M system may be inoperable
because the antenna is not deployed, or the spacecraft attitude is not proper for transmission to earth.
The backup system usually operates with an omnidirectional antenna, at UHF or S-band, with
sufficient margin to allow operation in the most adverse conditions. The backup system could also be
used if the main TTC&M system fails on orbit.

POWER SYSTEMS
The electrical power for operating equipment on a communications satellite is obtained
primarily from solar cells, which convert incident sunlight into electrical energy. The radiation on a
satellite from the sun has an intensity averaging about 1.4 kW/m2.

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Solar cells operate at an efficiency of 20–25% at beginning of life (BOL), and can degrade to
5–10% at end of life (EOL), usually considered to be 15 years. Because of this, large numbers of
cells, connected in serial-parallel arrays, are required to support the communications satellite
electronic systems, which often require more than one to two kilowatts of prime power to function.
The spin-stabilized satellite usually has cylindrical panels, which may be extended after deployment
to provide additional exposure area.
A cylindrical spin-stabilized satellite must carry a larger number of solar cells than an equivalent
three-axis stabilized satellite, because only about one-third of the cells are exposed to the sun at any
one time.
The three-axis stabilized satellite configuration allows for better utilization of solar cell area,
because the cells can be arranged in flat panels, or sails, which can be rotated to maintain normal
exposure to the sun – levels up to 10kW are attainable with rotating panels.
All spacecraft must also carry storage batteries to provide power during launch and during
eclipse periods when sun blockage occurs.

COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
Satellite Payload :
The next two sections discuss the key elements of the payload portion of the space segment,
specifically for communications satellite systems: the transponder and antenna subsystems.
Transponder
The transponder in a communications satellite is the series of components that provides the
communications channel, or link, between the uplink signal received at the uplink antenna, and the
downlink signal transmitted by the downlink antenna. A typical communications satellite will
contain several transponders, and some of the equipment may be common to more than one
transponder.
Each transponder generally operates in a different frequency band, with the allocated frequency
spectrum band divided into slots, with a specified center frequency and operating bandwidth. The C-
band FSS service allocation, for example, is 500MHz wide.
A typical design would accommodate 12 transponders, each with a bandwidth of 36 MHz,
with guard bands of 4MHz between each. A typical commercial communications satellite today can
have 24 to 48 transponders, operating in the C-band, Ku-band, or Ka-bands.

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The number of transponders can be doubled by the use of polarization frequency reuse,
where two carriers at the same frequency, but with orthogonal polarization, are used.
Both linear polarization (horizontal and vertical sense) and circular polarization (right-hand and left-
hand sense) have been used. Additional frequency reuse may be achieved through spatial separation
of the signals, in the form of narrow spot beams, which allow the reuse of the same frequency carrier
for physically separate locations on the earth. Polarization reuse and spot beams can be combined to
provide four times, six times, eight times, or even higher frequency reuse factors in advanced
satellite systems.
The communications satellite transponder is implemented in one of two general types of
configurations:
the frequency translation transponder and the on-board processing transponder.
Frequency translation transponders are used for FSS, BSS, and MSS applications, in both GSO and
NGSO orbits.
The uplinks and downlinks are codependent, meaning that any degradation introduced on the
uplink will be transferred to the downlink, affecting the total communications link.
This has significant impact on the performance of the end-to-end link.

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On-board Processing Transponder ;

Figure 3.9 shows the second type of satellite transponder, the on-board processing transponder, also
called a regenerative repeater demod / remod transponder, or smart satellite.
The uplink signal is demodulated to baseband. The baseband signal is available for
processing on-board, including reformatting and error-correction. The baseband information is then
remodulated to the downlink carrier at fdwn, possibly in a different modulation format to the uplink
and, after final amplification, transmitted to the ground. The demodulation / remodulation process
removes uplink noise and interference from the downlink, while allowing additional on-board
processing to be accomplished. Thus the uplinks and downlinks are independent with respect to
evaluation of overall link performance, unlike the frequency translation transponder where uplink
degradations are codependent, as discussed earlier.

Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) or solid state amplifiers (SSPAs) are used to provide the
final output power required for each transponder channel. The TWTA is a slow wave structure

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device, which operates in a vacuum envelope, and requires permanent magnet focusing and high
voltage DC power supply support systems. The major advantage of the TWTA is its wide bandwidth
capability at microwave frequencies. TWTAs for space applications can operate to well above 30
GHz, with output powers of 150 watts or more, and RF bandwidths exceeding 1 GHz. SSPAs are
used when power requirements in the 2–20 watt region are required. SSPAs operate with slightly
better power efficiency than the TWTA, however both are nonlinear devices, which directly impacts
system performance.

SATELLITE ANTENNA
Antennas
The antenna systems on the spacecraft are used for transmitting and receiving the RF signals that

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comprise the space links of the communications channels. The antenna system is a critical part of the
satellite communications system, because it is the essential element in increasing the strength of the
transmitted or received signal to allow amplification, processing, and eventual retransmission.
The most important parameters that define the performance of an antenna are antenna gain, antenna
beamwidth, and antenna sidelobes. The gain defines the increase in strength achieved
in concentrating the radio wave energy, either in transmission or reception, by the antenna system.

The antenna gain is usually expressed in dBi, decibels above an isotropic antenna, which is
an antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions. The beamwidth is usually expressed as the half-
power beamwidth or the 3-dB beamwidth, which is a measure of the angle over which maximum
gain occurs. The sidelobes define the amount of gain in the off-axis directions.
Horn antennas are used at frequencies from about 4 GHz and up, when relatively wide beams are
required, such as global coverage from a GSO satellite. A horn is a flared section of waveguide that
provides gains of up to about 20 dBi, with beamwidths of 10◦ or higher. If higher gains or narrower
bandwidths are required, a reflector or array antenna must be used.

The most often used antenna for satellite systems, particularly for those operating above 10 GHz, is
the parabolic reflector antenna. Parabolic reflector antennas are usually illuminated by one or more
horn antenna feeds at the focus of the paroboloid.
Parabolic reflectors offer a much higher gain than that achievable by the horn antenna alone.
Gains of 25 dB and higher, with beamwidths of 1◦ or less, are achievable with parabolic reflector
antennas operating in the C, Ku, or Ka bands. Narrow beam antennas usually require physical
pointing mechanisms (gimbals) on the spacecraft to point the beam in the desired direction.

Numericals :

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