VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

HYDERABAD
Autonomous institute affiliated to JNTUH

A Modular Simulation Testbed for Energy Management in

AC/DC Microgrids

A Course End Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Course of

Project Work Phase - 1 (A6244)

In
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

By

Roll Number Name of the Student

20881A0217 Harshavardhan Reddy Govind
20881A0219 K. Ashwitha
20881A0228 K. Sannith Yadhav
 VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
HYDERABAD
Autonomous institute affiliated to JNTUH

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of the course end project work entitled, “A
Modular Simulation Testbed for Energy Management in AC/DC Microgrids”,
done by Harshavardhan Reddy Govind (20881A0217), K. Ashwitha
(20881A0219), K.Sannith Yadhav (20881A0228), submitted in the Electrical
And Electronics Engineering, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
course of Project Work Phase - 1 (A6244) during the year 2023-2024.

Project Guide Head of the Department

B. Raja Gopal Reddy Dr. N. Karuppiah
Assisstant Professor Professor & HOD
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dept. of EEE
Vardhaman College of Engineering Vardhaman College of Engineering
Hyderabad. Hyderabad.

SIGNATURE OF THE EXAMINER Project Coordinator

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 ABSTRACT
This work describes a modular testbed for simulating AC/DC microgrids. The testbed is
written in Matlab Simulink and is based on the energetic macroscopic representation
(EMR) formalism. It is intended to be a tool for evaluating energy management
techniques in AC/DC microgrids. On the DC side of the microgrid simulation model,
there is a photovoltaic generator, a fuel cell system, ultracapacitors, and batteries. It
comprises voltage source converters (VSC) to connect the DC side to the microgrid's AC
side, which includes a variable AC load and a synchronous generator. Two case studies
demonstrate the use of the testbed. The model is implemented in Matlab Simulink and
made freely available to the scientific community. The energetic macroscopic
representation (EMR) formalism used by the testbed provides a systematic and structured
framework for modeling and analyzing complicated energy systems. Researchers can use
this formalism to create and improve energy management techniques that are suited to the
specific characteristics of AC/DC microgrids. The two case studies described in the paper
demonstrate the testbed's practical relevance, demonstrating its capacity to replicate
varied operating situations and confirm the effectiveness of proposed energy management
measures. This research contributes to the collaborative progress of knowledge in the
field of microgrid technology by building the model in Matlab Simulink and making it
widely available to the scientific community. This open-access strategy encourages
transparency, reproducibility, and the exchange of ideas among academics, supporting a
collaborative effort to address the issues associated with integrating renewable energy
sources and advanced energy storage technologies into modern power systems. In
summary, the modular testbed is a significant resource for both researchers and
engineers, allowing for the creation and evaluation of novel solutions for the efficient and
robust management of AC/DC microgrids.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO NO

ABSTRACT 3

1 INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Introduction 6

2 MODELLING OF MICROGRID 11

2.1 Photovoltaic Generator 11

2.2 Fuel cells 12

2.3 Batteries 13

2.4 Ultracapacitors 14

2.5 Synchronous Generator 14

2.6 Power converters and convert strategies. 15

2.6.1 Maximum power 16

2.6.2 Maximum power point tracker 17
2.6.3 Phase locked loop 18

2.6.4 Droop control 19

3 EMR OF MICROGRID 20

3.1 Energetic macroscopic microgrid 20

EMR of power converter 22

3.2

EMR of the DC source 1 23

3.3

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 3.3.1 EMR of the (vsc)2 23

3.3.2 EMR of two vsc supplying a load. 24

3.3.3 EMR of the AC/DC microgrid 25

4 CASE STUDIES 28

4.1 Power distribution between two vsc in 28

droop-pq control mode

4.2 Power distribution among a synchronous 30

generator and two vsc

4.2.1 DC source 1 30

4.2.2 DC source 2 30

30
4.2.3 Synchronous Generator
31
4.2.4 load and solar profiles

4.3 Energy Management 31

5 DISCUSSION 32

5.1 Conclusion 35

REFERENCES 36

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Electric power systems are progressively evolving from a generation,

transmission, and distribution system almost exclusively based on AC, to hybrid
configurations, where DC is gaining importance. In a few decades, DC systems could
even dominate AC, and many reasons indicate that such a power system can become a
reality. The fast development of voltage source converters (VSC) facilitates the
interconnection of DC sources, transmission lines, and loads in AC systems. DC power
systems are, in theory at least, more straightforward to operate than AC systems, because
the synchronization, the phase angles, and the reactive power are not a challenge
anymore.
Most electric drives operate in AC because of its simplicity and reduced cost
compared with DC. Vast amounts of energy are generated in large power plants using
combustion, steam, or hydraulic turbines coupled to synchronous generators. On the other
hand, large quantities of renewable energy are generated in small power plants connected
all to the network using distributed and intermittent DC generators located near the
consumers [1,2]. Storage in batteries or hydrogen-based (electrolyzers and fuel cells)
systems is performed in DC. Many recent projects use high voltage direct current
(HVDC) to transport energy through very long distances or to connect offshore wind
farms [3–5]. Most of the residential loads, such as lighting or appliances, operate in DC
because of its increased efficiency compared with AC. New isolated power systems could
privilege the use of DC over AC, but for now, the electric power system evolves toward a
hybrid AC/DC power system with high penetration of renewable energy [6,7].
The design and operation of microgrids require flexible simulation models. These
models should allow the consideration of AC/DC generation and consumption

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simultaneously. They also should allow the user to design and evaluate the effect of the
energy management and control algorithms.
One of the main challenges to operate hybrid power systems is the definition of
power references for each of the sources, respecting restrictions, and minimizing at the
same time multi-objective functions such as energy consumption or degradation of the
sources. Matlab Simulink is one of the most used software to study the energy
management in hybrid systems. Some recent developments using this software in DC
microgrids are presented in the following references. An optimal energy management
strategy of an islanded DC microgrid that includes photovoltaic generation, batteries, and
electrolyzers is addressed in [8]. Modeling and control strategies for distributed
converters in a DC microgrid that integrates photovoltaic panels and batteries are
presented in [9]. A distributed system to produce hydrogen with multi-stack polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers (EL) coupled with a wind turbine generator is
presented in [10]. The impact of battery energy storage systems (BESS) on the stability
of photovoltaic-BESS in DC microgrids is considered in [11]. The energy management in
an AC-isolated microgrid composed of a diesel generator, a wind turbine, and a flywheel
system is studied in [12]. Matlab Simulink is used in [13] to simulate a HVDC-connected
offshore wind power plant with the onshore grid. Reactive power-sharing with distributed
generators in an AC microgrid is treated in [14]. An active and reactive power
distribution strategy to suppress the voltage fluctuation when adding a renewable energy
source is presented in [15]. The design of the controller for AC/DC converters to reject
disturbances using sliding control is introduced in [16]. This work focuses on the
development of a simulation test bench openly available to download and distribute. We
also identified some open access, ready-to-use, complete simulation testbeds for
microgrids [17–19] and hybrid electric vehicles [20–22]. The research presented in [17]
proposes a simulation model of a microgrid, focused on the study of the power
converters. It is an excellent tool to analyze the microgrid’s small-signal stability based
on the Matlab LAT toolbox. References [18,19] introduce simulation models to study the
power market in complex power networks. Some references provide complete simulation
models for hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). A complete model of a fuel cell with batteries
applied to an HEV is presented in [22]. Simulation testbeds of a fuel cell ultracapacitor-

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battery (FC-UC-battery) hybrid locomotive and HEV are presented in references [20,21].
These models are developed in Matlab Simulink and are openly available to download.
They allow researchers to evaluate and compare different energy management strategies.
Numerous papers have published results obtained using such open-access software. The
work presented in [23] introduces a fuzzy logic controller to perform the energy
management in a fuel cell-battery HEV. A rule-based strategy to define control
references in a hybrid locomotive is presented in [24]. A particle swarm optimization
algorithm to solve multi-objective stochastic control models for microgrids operation is
presented in [25]. Reference [26] proposes the optimization of smart grids considering
market requirements. These recent research activities demonstrate the interest of
developing and making openly available simulation testbeds, allowing the scientific
community to evaluate and compare results under the same conditions. The present paper
introduces the energetic macroscopic representation (EMR) as a powerful formalism to
organize models, identify control loops, and evaluate control and energy management
strategies in AC/DC microgrids. The EMR formalism is a useful tool to organize and
simulate multi-physics/multi-source energy systems [27]. EMR allows systematic
integration of subsystems based on the principle of the integral causality and has been
widely used in areas such as hybrid electric vehicles [28–31], hybrid locomotives [21],
fuel cell systems [32], photovoltaic generators [33], marine turbines [34], and electric
vehicles charge stations [35]. This paper uses the EMR formalism to construct a modular
testbed of an AC/DC microgrid that includes a photovoltaic generator, FC, UC, and
batteries at the DC side. The model includes a synchronous generator with its automatic
voltage regulator and the load at the AC side. The architecture of the microgrid whose
testbed is provided with this paper is illustrated in Figure 1.

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 The present paper does not have the objective of proposing new models for the
energy sources. For this reason, we have referenced all the models adopted and adapted
from the literature. Nevertheless, the main contribution of this work is to propose a
simulation testbed that permits the integration of energy sources, power converters,
controllers, and energy management strategies (control references). Regarding the
components of the microgrid, the FC is modeled using polarization curves, as proposed in
[22]. The UC model is proposed by Zubieta [36] and the battery model, the one presented
by Ceraolo [37]. The droop control architecture is presented in [38]. The synchronous
generator and its automatic voltage regulator (AVR) models are adopted from [38,39]. A
complete simulation testbed, implemented in Matlab Simulink, is provided with this
paper and made available to download and distribute from the MDPI repository. With
this model, researchers can develop and evaluate control and energy management
strategies in AC/DC microgrids. Very few papers share complete simulation models
allowing traceability of the claimed results. To our best knowledge, this is the first ready-
to-use energy management-oriented simulation model of an AC/DC microgrid.

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 Compared with other testbeds and research in the literature, the one introduced in
this paper:
⚫ Allows the performing of a systematic study of the energy flows in an AC/DC
microgrid using the energetic macroscopic representation (EMR) formalism.
⚫ Provides simulation models, adopted and adapted from literature, for DC and AC
sources, power converters, power controllers, and AC loads.
⚫ Provides two ready-to-simulate Matlab Simulink AC/DC microgrid models. All the
results presented in this paper can be fully replicated using the files provided in the
MDPI repository.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the models of the power
sources, the power converters, and control systems. Section 3 introduces the AC/DC
testbed microgrid EMR. Section 4 presents two case studies to illustrate the use of the
testbed. Sections 5 and 6 present a discussion on the testbed and the conclusions.

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 CHAPTER 2

MODELING OF THE MICROGRID

This section introduces the sources’ models and control strategy provided with the
microgrid testbed. Sections 2.1–2.4 present the PVP, FC, batteries and UC models.
Section 2.5 introduces the synchronous generator’s model. Section 2.6 presents the
topology and model of the power converters.

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATOR

Electrical energy generation using photovoltaic panels (PVP) has increased

significantly during the last few years. PVP are one of the most used energy sources for
isolated microgrids. Most of the PVP models are based on equivalent electrical circuits,
composed of a controlled current source, a set of diodes, and a set of series and shunt
resistance. Some PVP models based on Matlab Simulink are presented in [40–44].
The model implemented in the testbed is the model presented in [45]. It is composed
of one diode and one series resistance, as illustrated in Figure 2. Equation (1) presents the
relations between the current I, the voltage V, the temperature T, and the irradiance G.

where Ipv is the photon current, I0 the diode saturation current, a the diode ideality
factor, and Rs the series resistance. Figure 3, generated with this simulation model,
presents the I–V curves of an available commercial Shell SM55 photovoltaic panel for a
standard 25 ◦C temperature and different irradiance levels [46].

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2.2 FUEL CELLS
Hydrogen is a promising energy vector with great potential for energy storage on
bigger scales than in batteries. It is characterized by a high energy density, compared to
classical energy storage devices such as batteries. Hydrogen can supply fuel cells (FCs)
for generating electricity, and in the energy storage process, hydrogen can be generated
using electrolyzers (ELs). FC and EL models are more complex than other DC sources
because of the multi-physics system. A complete FC dynamic model will consider
electrochemical, fluid, thermal, and electrical models [47,48]. However, for energy
management purposes, a static model can be adopted. The FC provided in this testbed is
modeled as a current-controlled voltage source. A polarization curve is considered as in
previous works on FC energy management strategy (EMS) [20–22,49]. Figure 4a

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illustrates a third-order model polarization curve and its corresponding power curve for a
typical 5 kW FC. Figure 4b illustrates the efficiency and hydrogen flow of the same FC.

2.3. BATTERIES

Electric batteries are certainly the most used energy storage source in power
systems. They have a good compromise between energy and power density. Many
models adapted for static or dynamic studies of the multiple available technologies are
found in the literature. In this testbed, the dynamic model proposed by Ceraolo is
implemented [37]. This model is adapted for lead-acid batteries, which is still the most
used technology in isolated microgrids. The equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure 5.
The parameters of the batteries used in the provided files are adapted from [50].

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2.4. ULTRACAPACITORS

Ultracapacitors (UC) are characterized by high efficiency and offer a high speed of
access to electrical energy. They are an excellent complement to hybridize with FC,
given their high-power density and efficiency. UC are used in applications as diverse as
the integration of renewable energy in electricity networks [51–53], regenerative braking
in hybrid vehicles [54], and uninterrupted power supply sources [55]. Several models
have been proposed for studying UC. In this testbed, the model proposed by Zubieta is
implemented [36]. The parameters of the UC implemented in the provided Energies files
are adapted from [56]. The equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 4. Fuel cell
models.

2.5. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Synchronous generators (SG) have been for a long time the base of electric power
systems. They are coupled to steam or combustion turbines in big power plants and
coupled to diesel generators in isolated microgrids. They can be coupled to wind turbines,
but most of the new wind plants are coupled to doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG),
of which the operating principle is similar to SG. The SG implemented in the testbed is
based on the classic SG equivalent circuit presented in Figure 7.

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The SG is coupled to an ideal mechanical source. For this reason, the frequency does not
depend on the power provided to the AC bus. The terminal voltage is controlled by an
automatic voltage regulator (AVR). In a real generator, the AVR will control the field
current, but the AVR implemented in the testbed acts directly on the electromotive force
esc. Figure 8 illustrates the operation of the SG when a sudden change of load is applied.
It can be observed that the AVR will maintain the reference voltage even after a change
of the load connected to its terminals.

2.6. POWER CONVERTERS AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

The power converters are at the heart of the microgrids. They allow
interconnecting sources with different characteristics while controlling the energy flow in
the power network. There are multiple topologies and model techniques for power
converters. However, as the main interest of this work is the energy management strategy
(EMS) study, simple models are convenient. All the converters are modeled as an ideal
power converter connected in cascade with L or LC filters. The circuit dynamics are
modeled in the abc frame, but the control of the power converters is performed in the dq
frame. For this reason, the Park and inverse Park transformation are performed in the

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VSC controllers. A phase-locked loop (PLL) is used to estimate the point of common
coupling (PCC) voltage and frequency used to generate the control references of the
power converters.

2.6.1. POWER CONVERTERS

The first DC/DC ideal converter supplies energy from the PVP to the first DC bus
using an LC filter. The batteries impose the DC bus voltage. The connection of the PVP
to the DC bus 1 is illustrated in Figure 9. The first VSC allows the coupling of the first
DC bus to the point of common coupling (PCC) at the microgrid’s AC side. The
connection of the PVP battery DC source to the AC bus is illustrated in Figure 10. The
second DC/DC ideal converter supplies energy from the FC to the second DC bus using
an L filter. In this DC bus, the voltage is imposed by the ultracapacitors, as illustrated in
Figure 11. The second VSC allows the connecting of the second DC bus to the PCC, as
illustrated in Figure 12.

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2.6.2. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER
A PVP generation system is an intermittent energy source. The power provided
by a PVP mainly depends on the solar irradiance and the temperature. The EMS intends
to maximize the energy supplied by this source. This task is frequently executed using a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) algorithm, which operates the PVP close to its
maximal power operation point. Many MPPT algorithms have been proposed in the
literature, using techniques such as incremental conductance (IC), fuzzy logic, and
perturb and observe (P&O). For the proposed testbed, the variable perturbation size of
P&O MPPT presented in [57] is implemented.
This MPPT algorithm is illustrated in Figure 13. Figure 14 illustrates the MPPT
algorithm’s operation when the PVP is connected and illustrates the operation after a
sudden change of irradiance.

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2.6.3. PHASE-LOCKED LOOP

A phase-locked loop (PLL) is used to estimate the phase angle and frequency
of the AC bus voltage. The PLL implemented in this paper is the one presented in [38].
The input to the PLL is the bus voltage in the abc frame. This voltage is transformed to
the dq frame using the Park transformation and an estimated phase angle. A feedback PI
controller is used to force the q-axis voltage zero. The abc voltage is then aligned to the
d-axis of the reference frame based on the estimated angle. Figure 15 illustrates the
structure of the PLL.

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2.6.4. DROOP CONTROL
Droop control is widely employed for active and reactive power sharing in inverters
connected in parallel [38,58,59]. The distribution of the active and reactive power among
the inverters depend Figure 15. Phase-locked loop block diagram. 2.6.4. Droop Control
Droop control is widely employed for active and reactive power sharing in inverters
connected in parallel [38,58,59]. The distribution of the active and reactive power among
the inverters depend on the two coefficients of the droop controller (m for P-ω and n for
Q-E) as illustrated in Figure 16. The droop control equations are presented below:

where ω∗ and E∗ are the angular frequency and the magnitude references for the grid
voltage, and P and Q are the active and reactive powers, respectively. P∗ is the set-point
of real power in P-ω droop control, and Q∗ is the set-point of reactive power in Q-E
droop control.

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 CHAPTER 3

ENERGETIC MACROSCOPIC REPRESENTATION (EMR) OF THE

MICROGRID

The study of the energy management in multi-source/multi-physics complex

systems such as microgrids requires defining an adapted tool. This section introduces the
EMR as a powerful formalism to perform this task, introduces the EMR methodology,
and presents the EMR and control structure of the considered AC/DC microgrid. Section
3.1 introduces the advantages of the EMR formalism to study the power flows in a multi-
source/multi-physics system. Section 3.2 presents the EMR of a generic power converter,
Sections 3.3 and 3.4, respectively, introduce the EMR of the DC source 1 and the DC
source 2. Section 3.5 presents the EMR of two VSC supplying a load, and Section 3.6
presents the EMR of the microgrid.

3.1. ENERGETIC MACROSCOPIC REPRESENTATION (EMR)

Different approaches have been proposed to study energy management in multi-

source systems: bond graphs [60], power flow diagrams [61] or energetic macroscopic
representation (EMR) [62] among others. The EMR is a graphical tool, oriented to the
analysis of the interactions between subsystems in a multi-physics system. This
formalism was originally proposed to study electromechanical systems such as electrical
machines and hybrid electric vehicles [62]. Since then, this formalism has been actualized
to enable an extension to other physical fields.
The EMR formalism is characterized by offering various benefits that make it an
excellent tool to study the energy flows in multi-source and multi-physics systems such
as AC/DC microgrids. It allows a systematic deduction of control structures, and its
implementation can be achieved using software environments such as Matlab Simulink or
20-sim. Identifying control loops using the EMR formalism is done straightforwardly
following four steps, as illustrated in Figure 17:
1. Organization of the system model in subsystems.
2. Inversion of the model using EMR rules.

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 3. Simplifications and estimations.
4. Design of energy management strategies.

In the EMR formalism, each element or subsystem has a graphic representation

according to its function on the system: energy conversion, energy storage, or energy
generation and consumption.
These pictograms are interconnected following the action-reaction principle and the
integral causality. The arrows that interconnect the pictograms represent the
instantaneous power exchange between subsystems. The EMR pictograms are presented
in Figure 18.

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 In order to identify the control structure, the maximal control structure methodology
is performed. This methodology is based on classic model-inversion control. The EMR
blocks are inverted following the EMR formalism rules. The conversion blocks are
directly inverted, and the accumulation blocks are inverted using controllers to respect
physical causality. The last step is to define the control strategy.
A complete guide to understanding the EMR rules, a Matlab Simulink EMR
Simulink library, and an actualized list of references on the EMR can be downloaded
from the EMR website developed and maintained by the L2EP laboratory Lille, France
[64].

3.2. EMR OF A POWER CONVERTER

The power converters (DC/DC and VSC) allow the coupling of two sources. They
are composed of an ideal conversion element and an accumulation element to model the
converter filter. Figure 19a illustrates the EMR, and Figure 19b shows in detail the
control structure of a generic power converter.

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 Figure 19. Power converter EMR.

3.3. EMR OF THE DC SOURCE 1

This DC bus includes a PVP and a battery, as illustrated in Figure 10. A source
pictogram represents the PVP. It is connected to the DC bus via a power converter,
composed of an LC filter (two accumulation elements) and an ideal DC/DC converter
(conversion element). The battery is represented by a source element, is directly
connected to the DC bus, and imposes the bus voltage. The DC bus is connected to the
AC bus using an L filter (accumulation element) and an ideal DC/AC converter
(conversion element). The EMR of the DC source 1 is presented in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Hybrid DC source and voltage source converter 1—EMR.

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3.3.1 EMR OF THE VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER (VSC)2
The VSC2 allows the coupling of the second DC bus to the PCC. This DC bus gets
its energy from the fuel cell and the ultracapacitors (UCs), as illustrated in Figure 12.
The FC is represented using a source pictogram. It is connected to the DC bus via a
power converter, composed of an L filter (accumulation element) and an ideal DC/DC
converter (conversion element).
The UCs, represented by a source pictogram, are directly connected to the DC bus
and imposes the bus voltage. The DC bus is connected to the AC bus using an L filter
(accumulation element) and an ideal DC/AC converter (conversion element). The EMR
of the DC source 2 is presented in Figure 21.

Figure 21. Hybrid DC source and voltage source converter 2—EMR.

3.3.2 EMR OF TWO VSC SUPPLYING A LOAD

The first microgrid includes two VSC supplying energy from two ideal DC sources
to a resistive load, as illustrated in Figure 22a. The EMR is constructed from the DC bus
(coupling element). The sources and the loads are represented by source elements, the
power converters as conversion pictograms, and the L filters by accumulation elements.
The EMR is presented in Figure 22b.

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 Figure 22. Microgrid 1: two voltage source converters (VSC) serving a load.

3.3.3 EMR OF THE AC/DC MICROGRID

Figure 23 presents the circuit representation of the microgrid introduced in Figure 1.
The microgrid’s EMR is constructed from its point of common coupling (PCC), which
distributes energy from all the sources to the variable load at the AC side of the
converters.

Figure 23. Electrical circuit representation of the microgrid.

The two DC sources are connected to the PCC through their VSC. The SG is directly
connected to the PCC, as well as the AC load. Here, the synchronous generator imposes
the PCC voltage, and the two VSC act as current sources.

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 Figure 24 presents the EMR of the AC/DC microgrid, and Figure 25, its
implementation in Matlab Simulink R2019b (Update 2). Matlab Simulink does not allow
yet the creation of subsystems with inputs and outputs on the same side of the block as
required by the EMR formalism. For this reason, the model in Simulink illustrated
in Figure 25 does not seem exactly the same as in the EMR formalism.

Figure 24. EMR microgrid.

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 Figure 25. Testbed microgrid implemented in Simulink.

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 CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDIES

This section presents simulation results for two case studies that illustrate some of
the capabilities of the testbed. Section 4.1 presents the simulation results for the power
distribution with two VSC supplying a resistive load. Section 4.2 presents the second
case study with the power distribution in the microgrid illustrated in Figure 23.

4.1. POWER DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TWO VSC IN DROOP-PQ CONTROL

MODE

This section presents simulation results for a microgrid where two ideal DC sources
supply energy to a charge through VSC. The active and reactive references are defined
using P-ω and Q-E droops, as shown in Figure 16. A phase-locked loop (PLL) is used to
estimate the PCC voltage and frequency used in the Q-E and the P-f droop. As a
verification of the control structure’s operation, the results provided in Chapter 6 of [38]
are replicated. The simulation illustrates the connection of a resistive load 1 p.u. at t = 0.
For this condition, each VSC provides 50% of the load. After 1 second, the load changes
to 1.2 p.u. Figure 26a,b, respectively, show the active and reactive power distribution
among the two VSC. Figure 26c illustrates the frequency, and Figure 26d, the amplitude
of the PCC voltage.

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 Figure 26. Simulation results.

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4.2. POWER DISTRIBUTION AMONG A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR AND
TWO VSC

From the PCC point of view, the microgrid is composed of four components: two DC
hybrid sources connected through voltage source converters, the synchronous generator,
and the load.

4.2.1. DC Source 1

The first DC source is composed of a PVP generator, a DC/DC uni-directional power

converter, and a battery. The PVP is composed of 100 Shell SM 55 panels connected in
parallel [46]. In standard test conditions, each panel has a nominal power of 55 W. A
peak power around 5 kWp is expected from this source. The PVP is connected to the
batteries through a DC/DC converter. The batteries impose the DC voltage to this bus.
The batteries are composed of 192 lead-acid cells connected in series. The nominal
voltage of the battery is 440 V and its capacity 8640 Ah.

4.2.2. DC Source 2

The second DC hybrid source is composed of a fuel cell, a DC/DC uni-directional

power converter, and a UC. The 5 kW FC is connected to the UC through a DC/DC
converter. The polarization curve of this source is presented in Figure 4. The FC is
connected to the DC bus using a DC/DC converter. The 270 V 16 F ultracapacitors
impose the DC bus voltage.

4.2.3. Synchronous Generator

A 240 V-60 Hz synchronous generator (SG) imposes the AC bus voltage. The SG is
coupled to an ideal mechanical source, and the generator provides a constant nominal
frequency independent of the power provided to the AC bus. The terminal’s voltage is
controlled using a PI controller, acting as an automatic voltage regulator (AVR).

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 30

4.2.4. Load and Solar Profiles

The inputs are the profiles of load consumption and solar irradiance. The solar
profiles are obtained from real conditions in Bucaramanga, Colombia, and are illustrated
in Figure 27a. The load profiles are typical Colombian rural profiles [65] and illustrated
in Figure 27a,b. The second profile is not real but allows the observing of the role of the
UC in the power distribution. The reactive power is assumed to be 10% of the active
power consumed by the load.

Figure 27. Daily solar resource and load variation.

4.3. ENERGY MANAGEMENT

The active and reactive references for each source are defined using simple rules
defined below. It is important to highlight that this is not an optimal or performant energy
management strategy. It is only an example of the microgrid operation.
The VSC1 active power reference is the power generated by the PVP. The VSC1
supplies a percentage of the reactive power consumed by the load. The VSC2 provides
percentages of the active and reactive power consumed by the charge. The power
supplied by the FC has an upper bound and a limited increase and decrease rate in the
power rates. The SG supplies the active and reactive power that the VSC do not supply. If
the battery or UC are close to overcharge/discharge, (state-of-charge (SOC) above/below

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 31

a reference value), the respective VSC reference is adjusted to permit a constant
discharge/charge of these sources.
Figure 28 and Figure 29 present simulation results for one day of operation of the
microgrid. Here, the main interest is the active and reactive power distribution between
the sources. The results illustrate the operation as defined with the rule-based approach.
The voltage and SOC remain between the predetermined bounds. The results presented
in Figure 28 are obtained using the profile in Figure 27b with a maximal load power of
10 kW. The results presented in Figure 29 are obtained using the profile in Figure 27c
with a maximal load power of 15 kW.

Figure 28. Simulation results of AC/DC microgrid—power profile 1.

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 32

 Figure 29. Simulation results of AC/DC microgrid—power profile 2.

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 33

 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

The modular testbed for studying energy management in AC/DC microgrids, this
paper underscores the practical utility of the developed Simulink model. The model,
crafted in Matlab R2019b, stands out for its accessibility, as it does not necessitate
additional toolboxes, ensuring a user-friendly experience for researchers and practitioners
alike. The chosen variable-step solver adds flexibility to the simulation process, allowing
for accurate representation of dynamic system behavior.

The inclusion of two insightful case studies further highlights the versatility of the
testbed and its capability to yield meaningful results. The Simulink model is meticulously
configured to run seamlessly, offering users a hassle-free experience in replicating and
extending the simulations presented in the paper. This not only enhances the
reproducibility of the findings but also encourages collaboration and the exploration of
additional scenarios beyond those initially investigated.

The paper also provides practical recommendations for optimizing simulation

efficiency. The endorsement of Simulink accelerator mode, particularly for simulations
involving extended time spans, underscores its significance in achieving computational
efficiency. The requirement for installing a MinGW-w64 compiler to utilize this mode is
duly noted, emphasizing the importance of adequate preparation for researchers intending
to leverage this feature. Moreover, the suggestion to reduce the data acquisition period as
a means to expedite simulations is a valuable insight for users seeking to balance
accuracy with computational speed.

The paper addresses potential memory constraints by proposing the segmentation of

simulations, thereby mitigating the risk of memory-related issues. This practical advice
adds a layer of robustness to the simulation process, ensuring that researchers can
navigate potential challenges associated with large-scale simulations. In essence, this

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 34

paper not only introduces a sophisticated testbed for AC/DC microgrid energy
management but also empowers users with practical guidance to enhance the efficiency
and effectiveness of their simulation endeavors.

5.1 CONCLUSION

This paper introduces a new testbed for the simulation of AC/DC microgrids. It is
based on the energetic macroscopic representation formalism. It allows the users to
design and evaluate energy management strategies for power distribution in hybrid power
sources. It provides simulation models adopted and adapted from the literature for the
following sources: photovoltaic panels, ultracapacitors, batteries, fuel cells, and
synchronous generators.
It also provides simplified models for the power converters and different controllers:
maximum power point tracker for the photovoltaic generator, droop controllers for the
voltage source converters, and an automatic voltage regulator for the synchronous
generator. Two case studies illustrate how the testbed can be used to evaluate a specific
energy management strategy. The simulation files provided with the supplementary
materials allow the obtaining of the results presented in this paper.
The model only requires Simulink and no other toolboxes. One of the main interests
of using the EMR is the modularity, so different models can be implemented for the
microgrid components without modifying the microgrid’s EMR.

Project Phase -1 (A6244) Page 35

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