Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows through
it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of
photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the
energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.[5] White light is obtained
by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor
device.[6]

Light-emitting diode

Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused

cases. There are many different variants of
Parts of a conventional LED. The flat LEDs.
bottom surfaces of the anvil and post
embedded inside the epoxy act as Working principle Electroluminescence
anchors, to prevent the conductors
from being forcefully pulled out via Inventor H. J. Round (1907)[1]
mechanical strain or vibration. Oleg Losev (1927)[2]
James R. Biard
(1961)[3]
Nick Holonyak
(1962)[4]

First production October 1962

Pin names Anode and cathode

Close-up image of a surface-mount
LED Electronic symbol
 Close-up of an LED with the voltage
being increased and decreased to
show a detailed view of its operation

A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED

lamp with aluminum heat sink, a light
diffusing dome and E27 screw base,
using a built-in power supply working
on mains voltage

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared (IR) light.[7] Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a
wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to
red.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and in seven-
segment displays. Later developments produced LEDs available in visible, ultraviolet (UV), and
infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable
for room and outdoor lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while
their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. LEDs have been used
in diverse applications such as aviation lighting, fairy lights, strip lights, automotive headlamps,
advertising, stage lighting, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted wallpaper,
horticultural grow lights, and medical devices.[8]

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, a
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching. In exchange for
these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low
voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a
pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and
storage temperature.

LEDs are transducers of electricity into light. They operate in reverse of photodiodes, which convert
light into electricity.

History

The first LED was created by Soviet inventor Oleg Losev[9] in 1927, but electroluminescence was
already known for 20 years, and relied on a diode made of silicon carbide.

Commercially viable LEDs only became available after Texas Instruments engineers patented
efficient near-infrared emission from a diode based on GaAs in 1962.

From 1968, commercial LEDs were extremely costly and saw no practical use. Monsanto and
Hewlett-Packard led the development of LEDs to the point where, in the 1970s, a unit cost less than
five cents.[10]

In the early 1990s, Shuji Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki invented blue light-emitting
diodes that were dramatically more efficient than their predecessors, bringing a new generation of
bright, energy-efficient white lighting and full-color LED displays into practical use and winning the
2014 Nobel Prize in Physics.[11][12]

Physics of light production and emission

In a light-emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor

produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called "electroluminescence". The wavelength
of the light depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductors used. Since these materials
have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and
die shape are required to efficiently emit light.[13]

Unlike a laser, the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even highly
monochromatic. Its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to the human eye as a pure
(saturated) color.[14][15] Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not spatially coherent, so it cannot
approach the very high intensity characteristic of lasers.
Single-color LEDs

Blue LEDs

By selection of different semiconductor materials,

External videos
single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a
narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared
through the visible spectrum and into the
ultraviolet range. The required operating voltages
of LEDs increase as the emitted wavelengths
become shorter (higher energy, red to blue),
because of their increasing semiconductor band "The Original Blue LED" (https://vimeo.co
gap. m/109205062) , Science History Institute

Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one

or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By
varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be
varied from violet to amber.

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the
cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the
level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If unalloyed GaN is
used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a
peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system
are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but
practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.

With AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at
wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black
light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in documents and
bank notes, and for UV curing. Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are
commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm.[16] As the photosensitivity of
microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about
260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization
devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already
effective disinfection and sterilization devices.[17] UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories
using aluminium nitride (210 nm),[18] boron nitride (215 nm)[19][20] and diamond (235 nm).[21]

White LEDs

There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes. One is to use individual LEDs
that emit three primary colors—red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light.
The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to
broad-spectrum white light, similar to a fluorescent lamp. The yellow phosphor is cerium-doped YAG
crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to
appear yellow when off, and the space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in
LEDs with partial phosphor conversion. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like
manganese(IV)-doped potassium fluorosilicate (PFS) or other engineered phosphors. PFS assists in
red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor.

In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through the phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor
converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red
light. The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other
phosphor converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors
that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package.[22][23][24][25]

The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because of metamerism,
it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. The appearance of objects
illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the issue of color rendition, quite
separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and
much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit the wavelength it reflects. The best color
rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering.

The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996.[26] Nichia
made some of the first white LEDs which were based on blue LEDs with Ce:YAG phosphor.[27]
Ce:YAG is often grown using the Czochralski method.[28]
RGB systems

Combined spectral curves for blue,

yellow-green, and high-brightness red
solid-state semiconductor LEDs.
FWHM spectral bandwidth is
approximately 24–27 nm for all three
colors.

An RGB LED projecting red, green, and

blue onto a surface

Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the
blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may
change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB
diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications
because of the flexibility of mixing different colors,[29] and in principle, this mechanism also has
higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.[30]

There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key
factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color rendering capability,
and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting a trade-off
between the luminous efficacy and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have
the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Although
tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous
efficacy. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W)
and fair color rendering capability.[31]
One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical maximum
for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even 100 lumens per
watt. The blue and red LEDs approach their theoretical limits.

Multicolor LEDs offer a means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be
formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color
control. Their emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,[32] resulting in a
substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without
phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs
without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays,
either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.

Dimming a multicolor LED source to match the characteristics of incandescent lamps is difficult
because manufacturing variations, age, and temperature change the actual color value output. To
emulate the appearance of dimming incandescent lamps may require a feedback system with color
sensor to actively monitor and control the color.[33]

Phosphor-based LEDs

Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted

by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more
broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG
phosphor, which emits at roughly 500–700 nm

This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN) with phosphors
of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-
converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).[34] A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which
transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the original LED's color, various
color phosphors are used. Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted
spectrum, effectively raising the color rendering index (CRI).[35]

Phosphor-based LEDs have efficiency losses due to heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other
phosphor-related issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs depend on the
spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the LED itself. For
example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED ranges from 3 to
5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human eye's greater sensitivity
to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the luminosity function).

Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, the phosphor method is still the most popular method for
making high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a
monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system,
and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using
phosphor light conversion.

1 watt 9 volt three chips SMD

phosphor based white LED

Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the
development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the
YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical losses
due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for another
10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is
being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures.
For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more
suitable type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of
varying phosphor thickness.

Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy.
Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece
coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable
for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED
emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium
garnet (Ce3+:YAG).

White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of high-
efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc
sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps
work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is
larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics,
which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue
ones, both methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a
malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.[36]

A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to produce

white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical costly sapphire substrate in
relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.[37] The sapphire apparatus must be coupled with a
mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be wasted. It was predicted that since 2020,
40% of all GaN LEDs are made with GaN-on-Si. Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult,
while large silicon material is cheaper and more abundant. LED companies shifting from using
sapphire to silicon should be a minimal investment.[38]

Mixed white LEDs

Tunable white LED array in a

floodlight

There are RGBW LEDs that combine RGB units with a phosphor white LED on the market. Doing so
retains the extremely tunable color of RGB LED, but allows color rendering and efficiency to be
optimized when a color close to white is selected.[39]
Some phosphor white LED units are "tunable white", blending two extremes of color temperatures
(commonly 2700K and 6500K) to produce intermediate values. This feature allows users to change
the lighting to suit the current use of a multifunction room.[40] As illustrated by a straight line on the
chromaticity diagram, simple two-white blends will have a pink bias, becoming most severe in the
middle. A small amount of green light, provided by another LED, could correct the problem.[41] Some
products are RGBWW, i.e. RGBW with tunable white.[42]

A final class of white LED with mixed light is dim-to-warm. These are ordinary 2700K white LED
bulbs with a small red LED that turns on when the bulb is dimmed. Doing so makes the color
warmer, emulating an incandescent light bulb.[42]

Other white LEDs

Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was
based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that simultaneously
emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate.[43]

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material composing the emissive
layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically conductive due to the
delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of the molecule, and the
material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor.[44] The organic materials can be small
organic molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.[45]

The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide
viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut.[46] Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of
printable and flexible displays.[47][48][49] OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable
electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions.[45][46]
Types

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the
plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but
not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-
power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are
generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not
shown).

A variety of different diffused

5 mm THT-LEDs
Red, 650 – 625nm

Orange, 600 – 610nm

Yellow, 587 – 591nm

Green, 570 – 575nm

Blue, 465 – 467nm

Purple, 395 – 400nm

LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or a few LED junctions may
be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An LED array may include
controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from a simple resistor, blinking or
color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB devices. Higher-powered white-emitting
devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be used for illumination. Alphanumeric displays in
dot matrix or bar formats are widely available. Special packages permit connection of LEDs to
optical fibers for high-speed data communication links.

Miniature

Image of miniature surface mount

LEDs in most common sizes. They
can be much smaller than a
traditional 5 mm lamp type LED,
shown on the upper left corner.

Very small (1.6×1.6×0.35 mm) red,

green, and blue surface mount
miniature LED package with gold wire
bonding details

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 1.8 mm to
10 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages.[50] Typical current ratings range from around
1 mA to above 20 mA. LED's can be soldered to a flexible PCB strip to form LED tape popularly used
for decoration.

Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as
used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be
clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. Infrared devices may have a black tint to block
visible light while passing infrared radiation, such as the Osram SFH 4546.[51]
5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct connection to a
5 V or 12 V supply.[52]

High-power

High-power light-emitting diodes

attached to an LED star base (Luxeon,
Lumileds)

High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from
hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can
emit over a thousand lumens.[53][54] LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2 have been achieved.
Since overheating is destructive, the HP-LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat
dissipation. If the heat from an HP-LED is not removed, the device fails in seconds. One HP-LED can
often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

Some HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto
Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HP-LEDs
manufactured by Cree exceed 105 lm/W.[55]

Examples for Haitz's law—which predicts an exponential rise in light output and efficacy of LEDs
over time—are the CREE XP-G series LED, which achieved 105 lm/W in 2009[55] and the Nichia 19
series with a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W, released in 2010.[56]

AC-driven

LEDs developed by Seoul Semiconductor can operate on AC power without a DC converter. For each
half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle.
The efficiency of this type of HP-LED is typically 40 lm/W.[57] A large number of LED elements in
series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a
high DC voltage LED, named 'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven from AC power with a simple
controlling circuit. The low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the
original AC LED design.[58]

Strip

Several LED spots being reflected as

continuous lighting strip

An LED strip, tape, or ribbon light is a flexible circuit board populated by surface-mount light-
emitting diodes (SMD LEDs) and other components that usually comes with an adhesive backing.
Traditionally, strip lights had been used solely in accent lighting, backlighting, task lighting, and
decorative lighting applications, such as cove lighting.

LED strip lights originated in the early 2000s. Since then, increased luminous efficacy and higher-
power SMDs have allowed them to be used in applications such as high brightness task lighting,
fluorescent and halogen lighting fixture replacements, indirect lighting applications, ultraviolet
inspection during manufacturing processes, set and costume design, and growing plants.

There are many types of LED Strips each with different codenames and LED types. Each one can
vary in input power, led spacing, color capability and more.

Application-specific

RGB-SMD-LED
 Composite image of an
11 × 44 LED matrix lapel
name tag display using
1608/0603-type SMD LEDs.
Top: A little over half of the
21 × 86 mm display. Center:
Close-up of LEDs in ambient
light. Bottom: LEDs in their
own red light.

Flashing
Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics.
Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated voltage regulator and a
multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused
lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color,
but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color
sequence using RGB color mixing. Flashing SMD LEDs in the 0805 and other size formats have
been available since early 2019.
Flickering

Infrared light from the LED die of IR

LED as seen by a digital camera
 Simple electronic circuits integrated into the LED package have been around since at least 2011
which produce a random LED intensity pattern reminiscent of a flickering candle.[59] Reverse
engineering in 2024 has suggested that some flickering LEDs with automatic sleep and wake
modes might be using an integrated 8-bit microcontroller for such functionally.[60]
Bi-color
Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One
type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow
in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The
other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common
anode or cathode so that they can be controlled independently. The most common bi-color
combination is red/traditional green. Others include amber/traditional green, red/pure green,
red/blue, and blue/pure green.
RGB tri-color
Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a
separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one
common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color. Others have only two
leads (positive and negative) and have a built-in electronic controller. RGB LEDs consist of one
red, one green, and one blue LED.[61] By independently adjusting each of the three, RGB LEDs are
capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, these do not produce pure
wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.
Decorative-multicolor
Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only two
lead-out wires. Colors are switched internally by varying the supply voltage.
Alphanumeric
Alphanumeric LEDs are available in seven-segment, starburst, and dot-matrix format. Seven-
segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display
all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5×7 pixels per character. Seven-segment LED displays
were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their
lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and
alphanumeric LED displays.
Digital RGB
Digital RGB addressable LEDs contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to power
and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, clock and sometimes a strobe signal.
These are connected in a daisy chain, which allows individual LEDs in a long LED strip light to be
easily controlled by a microcontroller. Data sent to the first LED of the chain can control the
brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used where a combination
of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as strings for Christmas
 and LED matrices. Some even have refresh rates in the kHz range, allowing for basic video
applications. These devices are known by their part number (WS2812 (https://cdn-shop.adafruit.c
om/datasheets/WS2812.pdf) being common) or a brand name such as NeoPixel.
Filament
An LED filament consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common longitudinal
substrate that forms a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent filament.[62] These are
being used as a low-cost decorative alternative for traditional light bulbs that are being phased
out in many countries. The filaments use a rather high voltage, allowing them to work efficiently
with mains voltages. Often a simple rectifier and capacitive current limiting are employed to
create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb without the complexity of the low
voltage, high current converter that single die LEDs need.[63] Usually, they are packaged in bulb
similar to the lamps they were designed to replace, and filled with inert gas at slightly lower than
ambient pressure to remove heat efficiently and prevent corrosion.
Chip-on-board arrays
Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently produced in chip on board (COB) arrays, allowing better
heat dissipation than with a single LED of comparable luminous output.[64] The LEDs can be
arranged around a cylinder, and are called "corn cob lights" because of the rows of yellow
LEDs.[65]

Considerations for use

Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.[66] The efficiency of
LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[67]) and are easily attached to printed circuit
boards.

Power sources

Simple LED circuit with

resistor for current limiting
The current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage (see Shockley
diode equation), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current. Current through
the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as a constant current source to prevent
damage. Since most common power supplies are (nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures
must include a power converter, or at least a current-limiting resistor. In some applications, the
internal resistance of small batteries is sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.

LEDs are sensitive to voltage. They must be supplied with a voltage above their threshold voltage
and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied
voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator
LEDs).[68]

Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases. Heating also
increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits
on the current through an LED in high power applications.[69]

Electrical polarity

Unlike a traditional incandescent lamp, an LED will light only when voltage is applied in the forward
direction of the diode. No current flows and no light is emitted if voltage is applied in the reverse
direction. If the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, which is typically about five volts, a
large current flows and the LED will be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid
damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.

By definition, the energy band gap of any diode is higher when reverse-biased than when forward-
biased. Because the band gap energy determines the wavelength of the light emitted, the color
cannot be the same when reverse-biased. The reverse breakdown voltage is sufficiently high that
the emitted wavelength cannot be similar enough to still be visible. Though dual-LED packages exist
that contain a different color LED in each direction, it is not expected that any single LED element
can emit visible light when reverse-biased.

It is not known if any zener diode could exist that emits light only in reverse-bias mode. Uniquely,
this type of LED would conduct when connected backwards.

Appearance

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional
lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can
cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the
base of the LED.

Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body
radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make
the color of objects appear differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or
incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[70] red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly by
typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is true with green surfaces. The quality of
color rendition of an LED is measured by the Color Rendering Index (CRI).

Dimming: LEDs can be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward
current.[71] This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when
viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic
effect.

Light properties

Switch on time: LEDs light up extremely quickly. A typical red indicator LED achieves full
brightness in under a microsecond.[72] LEDs used in communications devices can have even
faster response times.

Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same
effect. When large quantities of light are needed, many light sources such as LED chips are
usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate on the same target.

Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light
distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So, LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a
spherical light field. Different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different
optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees.[73]

Reliability

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.[74]

Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the manufacturing
tolerances in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a single current source may
result in LED failure as the devices warm up. If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is
required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands.[75]
 Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent
bulbs.[76]

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours
of useful life for white LEDs, though time to complete failure may be shorter or longer.[77]
Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the
conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE
demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather
than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED
product.[78]

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and
fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID
lamps) that require a long time to warm up to full output and to cool down before they can be
lighted again if they are being restarted.

Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the
operating environment – or thermal management properties. Overdriving an LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An
adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive,
medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and
require low failure rates.

Manufacturing

LED manufacturing involves multiple steps, including epitaxy, chip processing, chip separation, and
packaging.[79]

In a typical LED manufacturing process, encapsulation is performed after probing, dicing, die
transfer from wafer to package, and wire bonding or flip chip mounting,[80] perhaps using indium tin
oxide, a transparent electrical conductor. In this case, the bond wire(s) are attached to the ITO film
that has been deposited in the LEDs.

Flip chip circuit on board (COB) is a technique that can be used to manufacture LEDs.[81]

Colors and materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
 Wavelength
Color Voltage (V) Semiconductor material
(nm)

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

1.63 < ΔV <
Red 610 < λ < 760 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium
2.03
phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < ΔV <
Orange 590 < λ < 610 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III)
2.10
phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.10 < ΔV <
Yellow 570 < λ < 590 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III)
2.18
phosphide (GaP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)

1.9[82] < ΔV
Green 500 < λ < 570 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Aluminium gallium indium
< 4.0
phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

2.48 < ΔV <
Blue 450 < λ < 500 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
3.7
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)

2.76 < ΔV <

Violet 400 < λ < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < ΔV <
Purple multiple types
3.7 blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[83]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[84][85] Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[18]

3.1 < ΔV <
Ultraviolet λ < 400
4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium
nitride (AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm)[86]

Broad 2.7 < ΔV < Blue diode with yellow phosphor or violet/UV diode with multi-color phosphor
White
spectrum 3.5
Applications

Daytime running light LEDs of an

automobile

LED uses fall into five major categories:

Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey
a message or meaning

Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects

Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision[87]

Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to incident
light, instead of emitting light[88][89][90][91]

Indoor cultivation, including cannabis.[92]

The application of LEDs in horticulture has revolutionized plant cultivation by providing energy-
efficient, customizable lighting solutions that optimize plant growth and development.[93] LEDs offer
precise control over light spectra, intensity, and photoperiods, enabling growers to tailor lighting
conditions to the specific needs of different plant species and growth stages. This technology
enhances photosynthesis, improves crop yields, and reduces energy costs compared to traditional
lighting systems. Additionally, LEDs generate less heat, allowing closer placement to plants without
risking thermal damage, and contribute to sustainable farming practices by lowering carbon
footprints and extending growing seasons in controlled environments.[94] Light spectrum affects
growth, metabolite profile, and resistance against fungal phytopathogens of Solanum lycopersicum
seedlings.[95] LEDs can also be used in micropropagation.[96]

Indicators and signs

The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to uses as status
indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large-area LED displays are
used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays, and dynamic message signs on freeways.
Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination
displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.

Red and green LED traffic

signals

One-color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting,
ships' navigation lights, and LED-based Christmas lights

Because of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their high
output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals. The use in
brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise time,
about 0.1 second faster than an incandescent bulb. This gives drivers behind more time to react. In
a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough
frequency, they can create a phantom array, where ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes
quickly scan across the array. White LED headlamps are beginning to appear. Using LEDs has styling
advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic
reflectors.

Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary uses such
as glowsticks and throwies. Artists have also used LEDs for LED art.

Lighting

With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become possible to use LEDs
in lighting and illumination. To encourage the shift to LED lamps and other high-efficiency lighting, in
2008 the US Department of Energy created the L Prize competition. The Philips Lighting North
America LED bulb won the first competition on August 3, 2011, after successfully completing 18
months of intensive field, lab, and product testing.[97]

Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to
150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED
could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. The lower heat output of
LEDs also reduces demand on air conditioning systems. Worldwide, LEDs are rapidly adopted to
displace less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and CFLs and reduce electrical energy
consumption and its associated emissions. Solar powered LEDs are used as street lights and in
architectural lighting.

The mechanical robustness and long lifetime are used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles,
and bicycle lights. LED street lights are employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007, the
Italian village of Torraca was the first place to convert its street lighting to LEDs.[98]

Cabin lighting on recent Airbus and Boeing jetliners uses LED lighting. LEDs are also being used in
airport and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include medium-intensity runway lights,
runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and edge lights, guidance signs, and obstruction
lighting.

LEDs are also used as a light source for DLP projectors, and to backlight newer LCD television
(referred to as LED TV), computer monitor (including laptop) and handheld device LCDs, succeeding
older CCFL-backlit LCDs although being superseded by OLED screens. RGB LEDs raise the color
gamut by as much as 45%. Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using LEDs
for backlighting.[99]

LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such as
flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+
volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in cameras on
mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable.

LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security cameras. A ring of
LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying
in video productions.

LED for miners, to increase visibility

inside mines
 Los Angeles Vincent Thomas Bridge
illuminated with blue LEDs

LEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for miners. Research has been
done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination, reducing risk of injury
to the miners.[100]

LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for example as mood
enhancement.[101] NASA has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for
astronauts.[102]

Data communication and other signalling

Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used
in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or
objects.[103]

Assistive listening devices in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of infrared LEDs to send
sound to listeners' receivers. Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor lasers) are used to
send data over many types of fiber optic cable, from digital audio over TOSLINK cables to the very
high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet backbone. For some time, computers were
commonly equipped with IrDA interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby
machines via infrared.

Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth can be
achieved.[104] For that reason, visible light communication (VLC) has been proposed as an
alternative to the increasingly competitive radio bandwidth.[105] VLC operates in the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum, so data can be transmitted without occupying the frequencies of
radio communications.
Machine vision systems

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest
are easier to process. LEDs are often used.

Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of
those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source
for the miniature camera within the mouse.

LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light. LED
lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam
produced can be tailored to match the system's requirements.

Biological detection

The discovery of radiative recombination in aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) alloys by U.S. Army
Research Laboratory (ARL) led to the conceptualization of UV light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to be
incorporated in light-induced fluorescence sensors used for biological agent detection.[106][107][108]
In 2004, the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC) initiated the effort to create a biological
detector named TAC-BIO. The program capitalized on semiconductor UV optical sources (SUVOS)
developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[108]

UV-induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used for rapid real-time detection of
biological aerosols.[108] The first UV sensors were lasers lacking in-field-use practicality. In order to
address this, DARPA incorporated SUVOS technology to create a low-cost, small, lightweight, low-
power device. The TAC-BIO detector's response time was one minute from when it sensed a
biological agent. It was also demonstrated that the detector could be operated unattended indoors
and outdoors for weeks at a time.[108]

Aerosolized biological particles fluoresce and scatter light under a UV light beam. Observed
fluorescence is dependent on the applied wavelength and the biochemical fluorophores within the
biological agent. UV induced fluorescence offers a rapid, accurate, efficient and logistically practical
way for biological agent detection. This is because the use of UV fluorescence is reagentless, or a
process that does not require an added chemical to produce a reaction, with no consumables, or
produces no chemical byproducts.[108]

Additionally, TAC-BIO can reliably discriminate between threat and non-threat aerosols. It was
claimed to be sensitive enough to detect low concentrations, but not so sensitive that it would
cause false positives. The particle-counting algorithm used in the device converted raw data into
information by counting the photon pulses per unit of time from the fluorescence and scattering
detectors, and comparing the value to a set threshold.[109]

The original TAC-BIO was introduced in 2010, while the second-generation TAC-BIO GEN II, was
designed in 2015 to be more cost-efficient, as plastic parts were used. Its small, light-weight design
allows it to be mounted to vehicles, robots, and unmanned aerial vehicles. The second-generation
device could also be utilized as an environmental detector to monitor air quality in hospitals,
airplanes, or even in households to detect fungus and mold.[110][111]

Other applications

LED costume for stage performers

LED wallpaper by Meystyle

A large LED display behind a disc

jockey
 Seven-segment display that can
display four digits and points

LED panel light source used in an

early experiment on potato growth
during Shuttle mission STS-73 to
investigate the potential for growing
food on future long duration missions

The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber and
free space optics communications. This includes remote controls, such as for television sets, where
infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or
phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is
especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage sensor circuit (usually
battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible
electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An
optoisolator also lets information be transferred between circuits that do not share a common
ground potential.

Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to
the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. Pulse oximeters
use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather
than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of
three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and
there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one
time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light.

Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and
detection. This could be used, for example, in a touchscreen that registers reflected light from a
finger or stylus.[112] Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on, light.
Grow lights use LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants,[113] and bacteria and viruses can be
removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization.[17] LEDs of certain
wavelengths have also been used for light therapy treatment of neonatal jaundice and acne.[114]

UV LEDs, with spectra range of 220 nm to 395 nm, have other applications, such as water/air
purification, surface disinfection, glue curing, free-space non-line-of-sight communication, high
performance liquid chromatography, UV curing dye printing, phototherapy (295nm Vitamin D, 308nm
Excimer lamp or laser replacement), medical/ analytical instrumentation, and DNA
absorption.[107][115]

LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward
voltage drop (about 1.7 V for a red LED or 1.2V for an infrared) can be used instead of a Zener diode
in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs
have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far
more current-dependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are
not widely available.

The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such as LEDs and OLEDs,
suitable to incorporate into low-thickness materials has fostered experimentation in combining light
sources and wall covering surfaces for interior walls in the form of LED wallpaper.

Research and development

Key challenges

LEDs require optimized efficiency to hinge on ongoing improvements such as phosphor materials
and quantum dots.[116]

The process of down-conversion (the method by which materials convert more-energetic photons to
different, less energetic colors) also needs improvement. For example, the red phosphors that are
used today are thermally sensitive and need to be improved in that aspect so that they do not color
shift and experience efficiency drop-off with temperature. Red phosphors could also benefit from a
narrower spectral width to emit more lumens and becoming more efficient at converting
photons.[117]

In addition, work remains to be done in the realms of current efficiency droop, color shift, system
reliability, light distribution, dimming, thermal management, and power supply performance.[116]
Early suspicions were that the LED droop was caused by elevated temperatures. Scientists showed
that temperature was not the root cause of efficiency droop.[118] The mechanism causing efficiency
droop was identified in 2007 as Auger recombination, which was taken with mixed reaction.[69] A
2013 study conclusively identified Auger recombination as the cause.[119]

Potential technology

A new family of LEDs are based on the semiconductors called perovskites. In 2018, less than four
years after their discovery, the ability of perovskite LEDs (PLEDs) to produce light from electrons
already rivaled those of the best performing OLEDs.[120] They have a potential for cost-effectiveness
as they can be processed from solution, a low-cost and low-tech method, which might allow
perovskite-based devices that have large areas to be made with extremely low cost. Their efficiency
is superior by eliminating non-radiative losses, in other words, elimination of recombination
pathways that do not produce photons; or by solving outcoupling problem (prevalent for thin-film
LEDs) or balancing charge carrier injection to increase the EQE (external quantum efficiency). The
most up-to-date PLED devices have broken the performance barrier by shooting the EQE above
20%.[121]

In 2018, Cao et al. and Lin et al. independently published two papers on developing perovskite LEDs
with EQE greater than 20%, which made these two papers a mile-stone in PLED development. Their
device have similar planar structure, i.e. the active layer (perovskite) is sandwiched between two
electrodes. To achieve a high EQE, they not only reduced non-radiative recombination, but also
utilized their own, subtly different methods to improve the EQE.[121]

In the work of Cao et al.,[122] researchers targeted the outcoupling problem, which is that the optical
physics of thin-film LEDs causes the majority of light generated by the semiconductor to be trapped
in the device.[123] To achieve this goal, they demonstrated that solution-processed perovskites can
spontaneously form submicrometre-scale crystal platelets, which can efficiently extract light from
the device. These perovskites are formed via the introduction of amino acid additives into the
perovskite precursor solutions. In addition, their method is able to passivate perovskite surface
defects and reduce nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by improving the light outcoupling and
reducing nonradiative losses, Cao and his colleagues successfully achieved PLED with EQE up to
20.7%.[122]

Lin and his colleague used a different approach to generate high EQE. Instead of modifying the
microstructure of perovskite layer, they chose to adopt a new strategy for managing the
compositional distribution in the device—an approach that simultaneously provides high
luminescence and balanced charge injection. In other words, they still used flat emissive layer, but
tried to optimize the balance of electrons and holes injected into the perovskite, so as to make the
most efficient use of the charge carriers. Moreover, in the perovskite layer, the crystals are perfectly
enclosed by MABr additive (where MA is CH3NH3). The MABr shell passivates the nonradiative
defects that would otherwise be present perovskite crystals, resulting in reduction of the
nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by balancing charge injection and decreasing nonradiative
losses, Lin and his colleagues developed PLED with EQE up to 20.3%.[124]

Health and safety

Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as
defined in eye safety specifications such as "ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for
Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems".[125] One study showed no evidence of a risk in
normal use at domestic illuminance,[126] and that caution is only needed for particular occupational
situations or for specific populations.[127] In 2006, the International Electrotechnical Commission
published IEC 62471 Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems, replacing the application of
early laser-oriented standards for classification of LED sources.[128]

While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps, in that they do not contain mercury, they
may contain other hazardous metals such as lead and arsenic.[129]

In 2016 the American Medical Association (AMA) issued a statement concerning the possible
adverse influence of blueish street lighting on the sleep-wake cycle of city-dwellers. Critics in the
industry claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable effect.[130]

Environmental issues

Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength light than sources such as high-
pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue and green sensitivity of scotopic vision means
that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more sky glow.[58]

Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so much
so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to food
webs.[131][132] LED lighting near beaches, particularly intense blue and white colors, can disorient
turtle hatchlings and make them wander inland instead.[133] The use of "turtle-safe lighting" LEDs
that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is encouraged by conservancy groups in
order to reduce harm.[134]
 Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to incandescent
lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to
accidents.[135][136]

See also

High-CRI LED lighting

Electronics portal
Hiroshi Amano
Energy portal

Isamu Akasaki

List of light sources

LED tattoo

MicroLED

Perovskite light-emitting diode

Shuji Nakamura

Superluminescent diode

LED Strip Light

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Further reading

David L. Heiserman (1968). Light -Emitting Diodes (https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Electron

ics-World/60s/1968/Electronics-World-1968-01.pdf) (PDF). Electronics World.
 Shuji Nakamura; Gerhard Fasol; Stephen J Pearton (2000). The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete
Story (https://books.google.com/books?id=AHyMBJ_LMykC) . Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-
66505-2.

External links

Building a do-it-yourself LED (https://web.archive.org/web/20121015224322/http://www.dlip.de/?

[usurped]
p=99)

Color cycling LED in a single two pin package (http://cdn.sparkfun.com/datasheets/Components/

LED/changingLED.pdf) ,

Educational video on LEDs (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4y7p9R2No-4) on YouTube