Interaction of X-rays with matter

Basic interactions of X-rays with matter

When electromagnetic radiation (X-rays, gamma rays) passes through matter, the incident photons
interact with the atoms of the material.

1.Coherent Scattering
2.Photo electric interaction
3.Compton Scattering
4.Pair production
5.Photodisintegration
 Coherent Scattering
In coherent scattering (also known as unmodified or elastic scattering) the incident radiation
undergoes a change in direction without a change in wavelength.

▪ This interaction consists of an electromagnetic wave passing

near the electron and setting it into oscillation.
▪ The oscillating electron reradiates the energy at the same
wavelength as the incident electromagnetic wave.
▪ Thus, no energy is changed into electronic motion and no energy
is absorbed in the medium.
▪ The only effect is the scattering of the photon at small angles.
▪ It occurs when the energy of the X-ray is small in relation to the
ionization energy of the atom. It therefore occurs with low
energy radiation (<10keV).
▪ The percentage of radiation that undergoes coherent scattering
is small compared to that of the other basic interactions; in
general, it is less than 5%.
 Photoelectric interaction
➢ An incoming x ray photon knocks out a tightly bound orbital electron (usually K shell). The energy of
the x ray photon must be equal to or greater than the binding energy of the orbital electron.
➢ The photon disappears, giving up all its energy to the electron.
➢ The electron knocked out of it’s orbit is called a photoelectron.
➢ The atom now has an empty orbital electron. The electrons from other orbitals will jump the shells
(i.e. L shell to K shell or M shell to K shell, etc.). This produces characteristic radiation within the
object being imaged. This cascade of electrons continues until the atom has filled all it’s empty
shells.
 Photoelectric interaction

ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊 + 𝐾. 𝐸.
hf = Energy of incident photon
W = electron binding energy,
also called work function= hfo
K.E. = kinetic energy of photoelectron

Ephotoelectron = Eincident photon – Ebinding energy

Example: Eincident photon = 24 keV

- Ebinding energy = 20 keV
Ephotoelectron = 04 keV
 Photoelectric Interaction:
Probability of occurrence

➢ The incident photon must have sufficient energy to overcome the binding energy of the electron.
➢ When the energy of the X-ray is just slightly greater than the binding energy, the probability that the
Photoelectric Effect will occur increases greatly.

➢ The tighter an electron is bound in its orbit, the more likely it is to be involved in a photoelectric reaction. The
Photoelectric Effect is more probable to occur in the intense electric field near the nucleus than in the outer
levels of the atoms, and it is more common in elements with high Z than in those with low Z.

Photoelectric reactions are most likely to occur with low energy photons and elements with high atomic numbers
provided the photons have sufficient energy to overcome the forces binding the electrons in their shells.
 Photoelectric interaction and radiologic contrast
➢ PEA is related to the atomic number of the attenuating medium (Z), the energy
of the incident photon (E) and the physical density of the attenuating medium (p)
by: Z³ ρ / E³.
➢ Photoelectric absorption is about four to six times greater in bone than in an
equal mass of soft tissue.
➢ From the point of view of film quality, the photoelectric effect is desirable. The
photoelectric effect does not produce scatter radiation and it enhances natural
tissue contrast.
➢ From the point of view of patient exposure, though, it is undesirable. Patients
receive more radiation from photoelectric reactions than from any other type of
interaction.

➢ The two radiocontrast agents iodine and barium have ideal K-shell binding
energies for absorption of X-rays: 33.2 keV and 37.4 keV respectively, which is
close to the mean energy of most diagnostic X-ray beams.

➢ Why is Barium used in the X-ray imaging of GIT?

➢ Soft tissue, Z= 7.4; Ba, Z=56

 Compton Scattering
➢ X-ray photon can collide with a loosely bound outer electron much like a billiard ball collides with another
billiard ball. At the collision, the electron receives part of the energy and the remainder is given to a
Compton (scattered) photon, which then travels in a direction different from that of the original X-ray.

➢ The resultant incident photon gets scattered (changes direction) and imparts energy to the electron (recoil
electron).
➢ The scattered photon will have a different wavelength and thus a different energy.

hfi = Er + hfs Er

ℎ
Compton wavelength of electron 2.43×10−12 m
𝑚0 𝑐
The wavelength shift λ′ − λ is at least zero (for θ = 0°) and at most twice the Compton wavelength of the
electron (for θ = 180°).
 Compton Scattering:
Probability of Occurrence
Interaction probability is proportional to
• the the electron density
• physical density of the material
Inversely proportional to
• photon energy
Does not depend on atomic number (unlike photoelectric effect
and pair production)

➢ However, since the Photoelectric Effect is more probable to occur in high Z materials than in low Z
materials, the fraction of X-rays that lose energy by the Compton Effect is greatest in low Z elements.

❖ Scattered radiation degrades the photographic quality.

Radiographic image contrast is less with Compton reactions

than with the photoelectric effect.
 Pair Production

➢ Photon interacts with the strong electric field around the nucleus
➢ it undergoes a change of state and is transformed into two particles (essentially electromagnetic
energy is converted into matter): one electron, one positron

▪ Equivalent energy of an electron or position is

0.51Mev.
▪ Minimum energy of the incident photon must be
1.02MeV for pair production.
▪ Corresponding maximum photon wavelength is
1.2pm. Electromagnetic waves with such wavelength
are gamma rays.
▪ Additional photon energy becomes the kinetic energy
of the electron and positron.

Pair Annihilation
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF BASIC INTERACTIONS
How are these interactions related to diagnostic radiology?

➢ Photoelectric Effect is more useful than the Compton Effect

because it permits us to see bones and other tissues in the body.
➢ At 30keV bone absorbs X-rays about 6 times better than soft
tissue due to the Photoelectric Effect.
➢ To make further use of the Photoelectric Effect radiologists often
inject high Z materials, or contrast media, into different parts of
the body.
➢ Pair Production is of no use in diagnostic radiology because of
the high energies needed.
➢ Compounds containing iodine are often injected into the bloodstream to show the
arteries.
➢ Radiologists give barium compounds orally to see parts of the gastrointestinal tract
➢ Since gases are poorer absorbers of X-rays than liquids and solids, it is possible to use
air as a contrast medium.
➢ In a double-contrast study, barium and air are used separately to show the same organ.
➢ If the Photoelectric Effect did not exist and radiologists had to rely on the Compton
Effect, X-rays would be much less useful because the Compton Effect depends only on
the density of the materials.
Photon Beam Attenuation
 Attenuation vs Absorption

When photons interact with matter three things can occur. The photon may be:

➢ Transmitted through the material unaffected

➢ Scattered in a different direction from that traveled by the incident
photon
➢ Absorbed by the material such that no photon emerges
 Attenuation vs Absorption
Radiation a
Source
Detector

d c

➢ Initial photons produced by the source (the “primary”) and the photons created by the initial photon
interaction (the “secondary”).
➢ The “primary” photon will either be absorbed or unaffected by passage through the material as indicated
by “b”.
➢ The “secondary” photons may be absorbed such as “d” in the slide or they may be scattered such as “a”
and “c” which means that their direction has been changed so that they are not detected in the forward
direction. They were not absorbed but they are no longer traveling in the same direction as the incident
photon.
 Attenuation vs Absorption

Attenuation of the photon beam can be considered as a combination of

scattering and absorption.

Attenuation = Scattered + Absorbed

If the photons are scattered or absorbed, they are no longer traveling in

the direction of the intended target.
 Mono-energetic Radiation

• all photons in beam have same energy

• attenuation results in
• Change in beam quantity
• no change in beam quality
• # of photons & total energy of beam changes by same
fraction
 Attenuation Formula
N = No e -mx
where
N = # incident photons OR # photons penetrating absorber of 0 thickness
o
N = # transmitted photons
e = base of natural logarithm (2.718…)
m = linear attenuation coefficient (1/cm); property of
energy
material N N
o
x = absorber thickness (cm)

Mono-energetic radiation beam

 If x=0 (no absorber)
N = No e -mx
where
N = number of incident photons
o
N = number of transmitted photons
e = base of natural logarithm (2.718…)
m = linear attenuation coefficient (1/cm); property of
energy
material N N
o
x = absorber thickness (cm)

X=0
Mono-energetic radiation beam
 Exponential Attenuation

-mx
I = Io e

m is called linear
attenuation coefficient
unit is per cm.
 Linear Attenuation Coefficient

➢ Linear Attenuation Coefficient (LAC) provides a measure of the

fractional attenuation per unit length of material traversed.

µ is the linear attenuation

I = Io e -m x coefficient.
Unit: cm-1
 Attenuation

90% 90% 90% 90%

100 90 81 73 66
 Half Value Layer (HVL)
• Absorber thickness that reduces beam
intensity by exactly 1/2
• Units of thickness
• value of x which makes N equal to No / 2

N = No e -mx X1/2 = HVL = 0.693 / m

N/No= 0.5 = e -mx

Higher HVL means

more penetrating beam
lower attenuation coefficient
 Half Value Layer

A half value layer of any material will permit only 50% or ½ of the incident
radiation to pass.

A second half value layer will permit ½ of the incident radiation (already
reduced by ½) to pass so that only ¼ of the initial radiation (½ x ½) is permitted
to pass.

If “n” half value layers are used, (½)n of the initial radiation is permitted to pass.
“n” may be any number.
 Half Value Layer - Example

The half value layer (HVL) of a material is 2 cm. A

researcher has a piece of the material which is 7 cm
thick. What fraction of the initial radiation will pass
through the piece?
 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
➢ Mass attenuation coefficient
➢ Linear attenuation coefficient divided by density of the material.
𝝁
➢
𝝆

Independent of density of material.

Unit: g-1.cm2

➢ Mass Attenuation Coefficient (MAC) provides a measure of the

fractional attenuation per unit mass of material encountered.
 X-Ray Beam Attenuation

 reduction in beam intensity by Lower Higher

Energy
 absorption (photoelectric) Energy
 deflection (scattering)
 Attenuation alters beam
 quantity
 quality
 higher fraction of low energy photons
removed
 Beam Hardening
Half Value Layer
 Poly-energetic Attenuation

 Curved line on semi-log graph

 line straightens with increasing attenuation
 slope approaches that of monochromatic
beam at peak energy
 Mean energy increases with attenuation
 beam hardening
 Factors Affecting Attenuation

• Energy of radiation / beam quality

• higher energy
• more penetration
• less attenuation
• Matter
• density
• atomic number
• electrons per gram
higher density, atomic number, or electrons per gram
increases attenuation
 Lec-1, 29 August 2022

BMPT 531
Medical Radiation Physics
 Medical Radiation Physics

RADIATION?
Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles.

This course aims to provides the knowledge and understanding of the use of
radiation in Medicine.
Contents Contact hours
1. Atomic and nuclear structure, Electromagnetic Radiation, (4h)
Electromagnetic spectrum, Ionizing radiation, Radioactive decay,
modes of radioactive decay, Activity, half-life, decay constant,
radioactive equilibrium.
2. Interaction of radiation with matter: Bremsstrahlung, characteristic x- (4h)
rays, Annihilation, Photoelectric effect, Compton Scattering, Pair
production, Attenuation, Interaction of neutron with matter and their
clinical significance.
3. Interaction of charged particles with matter: Specific ionization, (2h)
Linear energy transfer range
4. Radiation dose units and quantities: Particle flux and fluence, energy (5h)
flux, fluence cross-section, Exposure, Kerma, stopping power, LET,
Absorbed dose, Dose equivalent, Effective dose.
5. Radiation detection: properties of dosimeters, gas filled detectors, (8h)
film, luminescence and semiconductor dosimetry, scintillation,
Photomultiplier tubes, Radiation monitoring instrument, Cavity
theories, stopping power ratio, calibration and standardization.
6. Biological Effects of Radiation (2h)
7. Nuclear Medicine: Radio-nuclides for Nuclear Medicine (radiopharmaceuticals) (6h)
and their supply, Isotope generators, Radionuclides administration, Non imaging
examples- hematological measurements, glomerular filtration rate, thyroid
uptake; Radionuclide imaging- bone, brain, dynamic renal function, myocardial
perfusion, Radionuclide therapy.
8. Radiation protection: Sources of radiation, exponential attenuation, half-value (7h)
layer (HVL), inverse square law, tenth-value layer (TVL), Linear and mass
attenuation coefficients, ALARA concept, Occupational, public exposure and
annual limits, Personal and environmental dosimetry, Shielding calculation,
Radioactive transport and waste management. Radiation accidents, Radiation
injuries, radiological emergency response and medical management.
9. Radiation therapy concepts, physiological mechanisms: Tumor ablation, Internal (7h)
dose delivery, Brachytherapy, External dose delivery; linear accelerator, Tele-
isotope units, Beam collimators, Fractional delivery scheme.
Books
Atomic Structure
 Structure of Matter Structure of NaCl

➢Atom is the smallest particle having

characteristic properties of an element.
➢A molecule is made up of atoms bonded
together.

Element
 Atomic Structure
➢Subatomic particles:
Electron, Proton, Neutron

➢Electron: -ve, Mass: 9.10938356 × 10-31 kg,

Charge: -1.602 × 10-19 Coulombs
➢Proton: +ve, Mass: 1.6726219 × 10-27 kg,
Charge: +1.602 × 10-19 Coulombs
➢Neutron: charge neutral, Mass: 1.67493 ×
10−27 kg
 Atomic Structure

➢The nucleus contains positively

charged Proton and charge neutral
Neutron.
➢Negatively charged Electrons exist
around a nucleus in definite shells.
➢Overall, an atom is charge neutral.
 Atomic Structure

➢Diameter:
➢ Atom: 10−10 m or 0.1nm
➢ Nucleus: 10−15 m or 1fm
 Bohr atomic model (1913)
➢An atomic electron can circle its nucleus only in
certain stable orbits without radiating any energy.
➢The stationary orbits are attained at distances for
which the angular momentum of the revolving
electron is an integral multiple of the reduced
𝑛ℎ
Planck's constant: 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
➢Atom emits or absorbs a photon of light when an
electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
Niels Bohr
Nobel Prize in Physics 1922
 Extranuclear structure

➢Electrons exist around the nucleus in different

energy levels, also called shells or orbits).
➢Shells are represented by principal quantum
numbers n (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ------), also denoted as K, L
M, N O etc.
➢Each shell can have a maximum of 2n2 electrons.
➢A shell may contain fewer than maximum electron
allowed.
 Atomic Energy Levels
➢ Electrons of different energy levels possess different energy.
➢ The higher the principle quantum number the higher is the
energy of that level. E2 E1

➢ Energy levels closer to the nucleus have more negative E3

energy.
➢ Electrons closer to the nucleus are tightly bound compared
to that away from the nucleus.
E = E2 - E1
➢ The outer most electrons are loosely bound.
➢ Energy is released as electromagnetic radiation when an
electron is moved from higher to lower energy level.
➢ Energy is absorbed when an electron move from lower to
higher energy levels.
 Atomic Ionization
➢ Electron binding energy is the minimum energy
required to remove an electron from an atom.
➢ Complete removal of an orbital electron from a
neutral atom is called Ionization.
➢ Photon (electromagnetic wave) or energetic electron
can ionize an atom.
➢ The atom becomes a positively charged ion as it lose
electron.
 Atomic Excitation
➢ Transfer of electron from ground state to higher
energy level is called atomic excitation.
➢ The atom absorbs energy and goes to excited
state.
➢ The excited state is very unstable and it returns to
its ground state soon by emitting energy as
electromagnetic radiation.
 Electromagnetic Radiation

➢ The electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave vary together. The fields are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave.
➢ Wavelength (λ) = distance between to consecutive crest (peak).
➢ Frequency (f) = number of waves that pass a fixed point in one second.
➢ Velocity, v = f λ
➢ Velocity at free space = 3x108m/s
 Electromagnetic Radiation: Quantum nature
➢ Electromagnetic radiation can exhibit both wave or particle nature.
➢ The energy of electromagnetic waves is quantized rather than continuous.
➢ It contains neither mass nor charge but travels in packets of radiant energy
called photons, or quanta.
➢ Electromagnetic radiation carry energy as discrete quanta known as
photon, Energy of a quanta E=hf
 Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

➢ Ionizing radiation has enough energy to knock electrons off atoms

that it interacts with.
➢ Example: X-ray, gamma ray, alpha, beta rays etc.
➢ Non-ionizing radiation does not carry enough energy per
quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules.
➢ Non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only
for excitation
➢ Example: visible light, radio waves, micro waves etc.

There is no specific demarcation line between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

energy. Photon energies less than 10 electronvolts (eV) may be considered as non-
ionizing.
 Atomic Nucleus
➢ Discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford.
➢ Nucleus contains proton and neutron.
➢ Nuclear particles are called nucleon.
➢ Atomic number, Z = number of protons (p)
➢ Mass number, A = Sum of the number of
protons and neutrons (p+n) or A=Z+n
➢ Number of Neutrons = Mass Number -
Atomic Number
58
➢ As long as the proton number is same the
element is same.
27𝐶𝑜
 Isotope

➢ Atomic nucleus having same number of

protons

58 60
27𝐶𝑜 27𝐶𝑜
Isotopes of Cobalt
 Isobar
➢ Atoms or nuclides of separate elements having the same mass number
(same number of nucleons).
 Isotone
➢ Nuclei that have the same number of neutrons.
 Atomic mass unit (amu or u)
An atomic mass unit is defined as a mass equal to one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
The mass of any isotope of any element is expressed in relation to the carbon-12 standard.

Example: Mass of an electron = 0.000549 amu

 Mass Energy equivalence

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Energy equivalence for 1 amu:

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 . 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 2

𝐸 = 1.4924 × 10−10 𝐽
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐸 = 931.5 × 106 𝑒𝑉

𝐸 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Nuclear Binding Energy

𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∆𝑚 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Nuclear Stability
 Radioactivity
• Atoms found in nature are either stable or unstable.
• An atom is stable if the forces among the particles that makeup the nucleus
are balanced. An atom is unstable (radioactive) if these forces are
unbalanced.
• An unstable nucleus will achieve stability by changing its nuclear
configuration.
• This includes changing neutrons to protons, or vice versa, and then ejecting
the surplus mass or energy from the nucleus
• This emitted mass or energy is called radiation (electromagnetic or particle)

Radioactive decay or radioactivity is the process by which an unstable

atomic nucleus disintegrate spontaneously and emits energy.
 Radioactivity Henri Becquerel

French physicist Henri Becquerel 1896 discovered spontaneous

radioactivity while studying uranium compounds.

In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie found other

radioactive elements: polonium, thorium and radium.

Marie Curie coined the term

“radioactivity”

Becquerel and the Curies shared the 1903 Nobel

Prize for their work on radioactivity
 Decay Law
The radioactive decay law states that the probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay is a constant, independent of
time. This constant is called the decay constant and is denoted by λ, “lambda”.

𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝒕

N= N0e-λt 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Activity: 𝝀𝑵

Unit of activity:
1 becquerel = 1 decay/s

1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive decays per

second
 Half Life
➢ The time it takes for one-half of
the atoms of a radioactive
material to disintegrate.
➢ Half-lives for various radioisotopes
can range from a few
microseconds to years.

Half-life of a radioactive isotope is 8 hours. What percentage of the isotope will decay after one day?
Modes of radioactive decay
 Alpha decay
• Alphas are large particles ejected by
the heavier nuclides
• Alpha decay is probable for nuclides A− 4 +2
with Z > 82
Z
A
X→ Y + He
Z −2
4
2
• Alpha contains two protons and two
+2
Po→ Pb+ He
neutrons (no electrons) and is, in 210 206 4
effect, a helium nucleus
84 82 2
• Thus, the atomic number decreases by
two and the mass number decreases
by four
Beta decay
• Betas are physically the same as electrons, but may be positively or
negatively charged
• Negative beta is a beta minus or negatron
• Positive beta is a beta plus or positron
• Betas are ejected from the nucleus, not from the electron orbitals
• In all beta decays the atomic number changes by one while the atomic
mass is unchanged
 Beta- decay

• Occurs in neutron-rich nuclides

1
0 n→ p + e + 
1
1
0
−1
• The nucleus converts a neutron into a
proton and a beta minus (which is
ejected from the nucleus with an anti-
neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z +1
0
−1
• Mass and charge are conserved
• The daughter element is different from

Sr → Y +  + 
the parent element 90 90 0
38 39 −1
 Beta+ decay

• Occurs in proton-rich nuclides

• The nucleus converts a proton into a
1
1 p→ n+ e + 
1
0
0
+1
neutron and a beta plus (which is ejected
from the nucleus with a neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z −1
0
+1
• As with negatrons, the positron can have a
range of energies from 0 to EMax MeV
• Positron is the negatron’s anti-particle
 Electron Capture
• Proton-rich nuclides may also decay via
orbital electron capture (EC) 1
1 p + e→ n + 
0
−1
1
0
• Usually an innermost K shell electron is

X + e→ Y +
captured and often referred to as K-capture A 0 A
• The electron and a proton are converted into Z −1 Z −1
a neutron and a neutrino is emitted
• Electrons from higher orbitals will fill
vacancy and usually emit characteristic x-
53
25 Mn ⎯⎯→ Cr +
EC 53
24
rays
 Auger Electron

• When electrons change shells, EM radiation are usually •

emitted
• In some instances, the excess energy is transferred to • • •
another orbital electron, which is then ejected from the • • •
atom
• This ejected electron is known as an Auger electron
• Another orbital vacancy now exists and x-rays may be
emitted if they are filled
 Nuclear Energy Levels
➢ The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy
levels whose location and properties are governed
by the rules of quantum mechanics.
➢ There is a state of lowest energy (the ground state)
and discrete possible excited states for a nucleus.
➢ Where the discrete energy states for the electrons
of an atom are measured in eV or keV, the energy
levels of the nucleus are considerably greater and
typically measured in MeV.
➢ A nucleus that is in the excited state will not remain
at that energy level for an indefinite period. Like the
electrons in an excited atom, the nucleons in an
excited nucleus will transition towards their lowest
energy configuration and in doing so emit a
discrete bundle of electromagnetic radiation called
a gamma ray (γ-ray).
 Lec-3, 05 September 2022

Radioactive Decay
0
−1 

Gamma Rays

Parent Daughter
Co-60 Ni-60

Anti-neutrino
 Alpha decay

• Alphas are large particles ejected by

the heavier nuclides
A− 4 +2
• Alpha decay is probable for nuclides
with Z > 82 Z
A
X→ Y + He
Z −2
4
2
• Alpha contains two protons and two +2
neutrons (no electrons) and is, in
210
84 Po→ Pb+ He
206
82
4
2
effect, a helium nucleus
• Thus, the atomic number decreases by
two and the mass number decreases
by four
Beta decay
• Betas are physically the same as electrons, but may be positively or
negatively charged
• Negative beta is a beta minus or negatron
• Positive beta is a beta plus or positron
• Betas are ejected from the nucleus, not from the electron orbitals
• In all beta decays the atomic number changes by one while the atomic
mass is unchanged
 Beta- decay

• Occurs in neutron-rich nuclides

1
0 n→ p + e + 
1
1
0
−1
• The nucleus converts a neutron into a
proton and a beta minus (which is
ejected from the nucleus with an anti-
neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z +1
0
−1
• Mass and charge are conserved
• The daughter element is different from

Sr → Y +  + 
the parent element 90 90 0
38 39 −1
 Beta+ decay

• Occurs in proton-rich nuclides

• The nucleus converts a proton into a
1
1 p→ n+ e + 
1
0
0
+1
neutron and a beta plus (which is ejected
from the nucleus with a neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z −1
0
+1
• As with negatrons, the positron can have a
range of energies from 0 to EMax MeV
• Positron is the negatron’s anti-particle
 Electron Capture
• Proton-rich nuclides may also decay via
orbital electron capture (EC) 1
1 p + e→ n + 
0
−1
1
0
• Usually an innermost K shell electron is

X + e→ Y +
captured and often referred to as K-capture A 0 A
• The electron and a proton are converted into Z −1 Z −1
a neutron and a neutrino is emitted
• Electrons from higher orbitals will fill
vacancy and usually emit characteristic x-
53
25 Mn ⎯⎯→ Cr +
EC 53
24
rays
 Auger Electron

• When electrons change shells, EM radiation are usually •

emitted
• In some instances, the excess energy is transferred to • • •
another orbital electron, which is then ejected from the • • •
atom
• This ejected electron is known as an Auger electron
• Another orbital vacancy now exists and x-rays may be
emitted if they are filled
 Gamma (γ) radiation

• Daughter nuclei from radioactive decays are often ‘born’ with excess energy
• Usually the excited nucleus reaches ground state via nuclear de-excitation
• Most frequently the excess energy is relieved via the emission of one or more γ
rays
• The excited nucleus and the final ground state nucleus have the same Z and A
and are called isomers
• During de-excitation no nuclear transformation occurs, so no ‘new’ element is
formed
 Gamma radiation

 
−

1.173
0
−1  60
Co 99+%
27

0.83
0.013%

1.332
Gamma Rays 0.12%
Q
Parent Daughter
Co-60 Ni-60

Anti-neutrino

60
Co-60 Decay Scheme 28 Ni
 Artificially induced radioactivity
Radioactivation

Activation (or radioactivation) involves making a radioactive isotope by neutron capture, e.g. the addition of a
neutron to a nuclide resulting in an increase in isotope number by 1 while retaining the same atomic number.

The 60Co isotope is unstable (half life of 5.272 years) and disintegrates
into 60Ni via the emission of β particle and γ radiation
Penetration ability
 Use of radioactive isotopes in medicine

➢ Diagnostic: thyroid uptake studies, renal function studies, lung

ventilation, perfusion, bone scanning, SPECT, PET imaging.

➢ Therapeutic: Treatment of cancer using radioisotopes, eg. Co-60

Radioactive equilibrium
 Decay Series: Radioactive Equilibrium

A B C
NA NB NC

𝜆ANA = 𝜆BNB
➢In radioactive transformation when a daughter
element transforms at the same rate at which it is
formed from the parent element.
 Secular Equilibrium
➢Parent nucleus has a much longer
half-life than its daughter.

Example: Ra-226 (half-life =1620 yr)

which decays to Rn-226 (half-life 4.8
days).

➢Amount of daughter remains constant over time.

➢Activity remains constant over time.
 Transient Equilibrium
➢When the parent half-life is of the
order of the observation time and
the daughter half-life is slightly
shorter.

➢Eg. Mo 66 hours, TC-99m 6 hours

 Nuclear Energy Levels
➢ The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy
levels whose location and properties are governed
by the rules of quantum mechanics.
➢ There is a state of lowest energy (the ground state)
and discrete possible excited states for a nucleus.
➢ Where the discrete energy states for the electrons
of an atom are measured in eV or keV, the energy
levels of the nucleus are considerably greater and
typically measured in MeV.
➢ A nucleus that is in the excited state will not remain
at that energy level for an indefinite period. Like the
electrons in an excited atom, the nucleons in an
excited nucleus will transition towards their lowest
energy configuration and in doing so emit a
discrete bundle of electromagnetic radiation called
a gamma ray (γ-ray).
Photon Beam Attenuation
 Half value layer (HVL)

Example:
Lead, 100keV HVL= 0.012cm
Lead, 500keV HVL= 0.42cm
Water, 100keV HVL= 4.15cm
Water, 500keV HVL= 7.15cm
What is the thickness of aluminum required to reduce a 200keV x-ray beam to 10% of its intensity?
Assume HVL of Al for 200keV x-ray is 2.14cm.
 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
➢ Mass attenuation coefficient
➢ Linear attenuation coefficient divided by density of the material.
𝝁
➢
𝝆

Independent of density of material.

Unit: g-1.cm2

➢ Mass Attenuation Coefficient (MAC) provides a measure of the

fractional attenuation per unit mass of material encountered.
 X-Ray Beam Attenuation

 reduction in beam intensity by Lower Higher

Energy
 absorption (photoelectric) Energy
 deflection (scattering)
 Attenuation alters beam
 quantity
 quality
 higher fraction of low energy photons
removed
 Beam Hardening
Half Value Layer
 Poly-energetic Attenuation

 Curved line on semi-log graph

 line straightens with increasing attenuation
 slope approaches that of monochromatic
beam at peak energy
 Mean energy increases with attenuation
 beam hardening
 Factors Affecting Attenuation

• Energy of radiation / beam quality

• higher energy
• more penetration
• less attenuation
• Matter
• density
• atomic number
• electrons per gram
higher density, atomic number, or electrons per gram
increases attenuation
Radiation Measurement Units
 Radiation Exposure
➢Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing
radiation from high-energy photons (i.e. X-rays and gamma rays).

➢Unit: Roentgen (R)

➢1 R means the amount of X-rays radiation that is required to liberate positive
and negative charges of one electrostatic unit of charge (esu) in 1 cc of dry air at
standard temperature and pressure (STP). [charges of only one sign is
considered]

• 1 esu = 3.33564×10−10 C
• Air weighs 0.0012929 gram
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑹 per cubic centimeter
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
 Absorbed dose (D)
• To measure the interaction of all types of radiation with any kind of
material, the term absorbed dose is used. Energy absorbed per unit mass
of a material is defined as the Absorbed Dose.
• The units of measure for absorbed dose in the SI system is J/kg or gray
(Gy).
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
• 1𝐺𝑦 =
1 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑒
• A radiation field that deposits 1 Joule of energy in 1 kg of material has an
absorbed dose of 1 Gy.
• The old unit of measure for absorbed dose is rad (short for “radiation
absorbed dose”).
• 1 rad = 0.01 Gy 1 Gy =100 rad
 Equivalent dose (H)

• The most important meaning of dose is connected with radiation hazards of

biological tissues.
• The risk of damage is different for different types of radiation.
• Equivalent dose is that dose which gives the same risk of damage to health
whatever the type of radiation.
• Unit: Sievert (Sv)
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
• 1 𝑆𝑣 = × 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑒
• H = 𝐷 × 𝑊𝑅 in Sv, where WR is the weighting factor for type of radiation
 Equivalent dose (H)
• H = 𝐷 × 𝑊𝑅 in Sv, where WR is the weighting factor for type of radiation

1 𝑟𝑒𝑚 = 0.01 𝑆𝑣 1 𝑆𝑣 = 100𝑟𝑒𝑚

**A radiation worker received an X-ray dose of 25mGy over a course of one year.
What is the equivalent dose?
 Effective dose (È)
• The risk of damage is different for different organ or tissue.
• When different organs and tissues are irradiated, the effect on
whole body is calculated as effective dose.
E = 𝐻 × 𝑊𝑇 in Sv, where WT is the weighting factor for type of tissue

❖ During an X-ray exposure, the lungs and

stomach of a patient received doses of
1.0mGy and 0.8mGy respectively. What is
the total effective dose?
 Radiation Detectors
❑ Any material that exhibits measurable radiation related changes can be used as detector for
ionizing radiation.

• Gas filled detectors

• Electric charge • ionisation chambers • Other detectors
• proportional counters • Semi conductor detectors
• Emission of visible light
• Geiger Müller (GM) - • Film
• Chemical changes
tubes • Thermoluminescense
• Scintillation detectors detectors (TLD)
• solid
• liquid
 Gas filled detectors
The most widely used radiation detectors are devices that respond to ionizing radiation by producing
electrical pulses
Gas filled detectors
Gas filled detectors
As the electric field in an ion chamber system is increased the freed e- are accelerated and achieve
sufficient kinetic energy to cause additional ionizations within the detector

Gas amplification factor --- upto104

Initial pair

High voltage
Gas filled detectors
 Gas
amplification
factor ---
109 to 1010
Townsend Avalanche
Gas filled detectors
Gas filled detectors

Current (I)
 GM Counters

❑When the electric field strength across a

proportional counter is increased (> 106 V/m), the
device enters a GM region of operation.
❑ GM counter is gas-ionization device in which, the
ionization effect creates a response which can be
converted to an electrical output.
❑It is a gas-filled detector designed for maximum
gas amplification effect.
 Dead Time

➢ The electrons that are produced in the resulting avalanche are accelerated to the
anode and collected in a short period of time.
➢ However, the positive ions are more massive and make their way slowly to the
cylindrical cathode. If their average transient time is T, the GM tube is busy during T.
➢ If another ionizing particle enters the GM tube during T, it will not be counted. This
time (T) is called the dead time (or resolving time) of the GM tube.
➢ Dead time: Between 100 and 300µs
 Scintillation detectors

Scintillator (NaI (TI): sodium iodide, ZnS: Zinc Sulfide)

 Scintillation detectors

➢ A Scintillator is a material that converts energy lost by ionizing radiation into light.
➢ Ionizing radiation interacts with a scintillator which produces a pulse of light

➢ This light interacts (photoelectric interaction) with a photocathode which results in

the production of an electron

➢ The electron is multiplied in a photomultiplier tube that has a series of focused

dynodes with increasing potential voltage which results in an electrical signal
 Scintillation detectors

➢ The number of counts is dependent on the activity that is

present

➢ The energy of the electron, and consequently the associated

current is proportional to the incident energy of the ionizing
radiation
 Thermolumniscent Dosimeter (TLD)

The TLD badge is a personnel monitoring device with special chemical compounds (e.g., lithium fluoride) that
retain deposited energy from radiation exposure.

Thermoluminescence Mechanism:
• Thermoluminescence is the emission of light from a crystal on heating, after
removal of excitation (i.e. ionizing radiation).
• Radiation dose causes the electrons in the crystal to move from low energy
states to higher energy states.
• Impurities in crystals create energy trap, providing metastable state for the
electrons.
• Some of these excited electrons are trapped in metastable states
• These photons can be collected with a photomultiplier tube.
• By proper calibration, the dose delivered to the crystal can be measured.
Thermolumniscent Dosimeter (TLD)
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
 Semiconductor Detectors
Principle of Operation of Semiconductor Detectors

•Ionizing radiation enters the sensitive volume of the detector and

interacts with the semiconductor material.
•Particle passing through the detector ionizes the atoms of semiconductor,
producing the electron-hole pairs. The number of electron-hole pairs is
proportional to the energy of the radiation to the semiconductor. As a
result, a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to the
conduction band, and an equal number of holes are created in the valence
band.
•The energy per pair is ~ 3 eV, which is smaller than w-values of gas-filled
detectors by a factor 10.
Semiconductor Detectors

Principle of Operation of Semiconductor Detectors

➢ A charge depleted region occurs at the interface of the n and p type
regions. This depleted region is created as the result of both electron
diffusion from n type material into p type and hole diffusion from p
type to n type material.
➢ The performance of the p-n junction as a practically used radiation
detector is improved by applying an external voltage that leads the
junction to be reversed biased. As the applied voltage raises, both the
width of the depletion region (i.e., the sensitive volume) increases.
•Under the influence of an electric field, electrons and holes travel to the
electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer
circuit,
•This pulse carries information about the energy of the original incident
radiation. The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information
about the intensity of the radiation.
 Film badge

➢ Film badges are composed of chemically coated film (mostly

a silver bromide emulsion), covered by light tight paper in a
compact plastic container.
➢ Radiation causes a blackening (silver) of the film material.
➢ The degree of film darkening, known as optical density,
represents the radiation dose.
➢ The badge incorporates a series of filters to determine the
quality of the radiation.
Film badge
Radiation Detectors
 Film badge

➢ Film badges are composed of chemically coated film (mostly

a silver bromide emulsion), covered by light tight paper in a
compact plastic container.
➢ Radiation causes a blackening (silver) of the film material.
➢ The degree of film darkening, known as optical density,
represents the radiation dose.
➢ The badge incorporates a series of filters to determine the
quality of the radiation.
Film badge
 Semiconductor Detectors
Principle of Operation of Semiconductor Detectors

•Ionizing radiation enters the sensitive volume of the detector and

interacts with the semiconductor material.
•Particle passing through the detector ionizes the atoms of semiconductor,
producing the electron-hole pairs. The number of electron-hole pairs is
proportional to the energy of the radiation to the semiconductor. As a
result, a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to the
conduction band, and an equal number of holes are created in the valence
band.
•The energy per pair is ~ 3 eV, which is smaller than w-values of gas-filled
detectors by a factor 10.
Semiconductor Detectors

Principle of Operation of Semiconductor Detectors

➢ A charge depleted region occurs at the interface of the n and p type
regions. This depleted region is created as the result of both electron
diffusion from n type material into p type and hole diffusion from p
type to n type material.
➢ The performance of the p-n junction as a practically used radiation
detector is improved by applying an external voltage that leads the
junction to be reversed biased. As the applied voltage raises, both the
width of the depletion region (i.e., the sensitive volume) increases.
•Under the influence of an electric field, electrons and holes travel to the
electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer
circuit,
•This pulse carries information about the energy of the original incident
radiation. The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information
about the intensity of the radiation.
 Background Radiation
Background radiation is the ionizing radiation always present in the environment at a
particular location.

Includes: Natural radiation and artificial radiation

 Natural Sources of Radiation

• Natural background radiation comes from

three sources:
– Cosmic Radiation
– Terrestrial Radiation
– Internal Radiation
 Natural Sources of Radiation

• Cosmic Radiation
– Sun and stars send constant stream of cosmic radiation to Earth
• Like steady drizzle of rain
– Differences in certain variables can change the amount (or dose) of
cosmic radiation that we receive.
• Elevation
• Atmospheric conditions
• Earth's magnetic field

The atmosphere acts as a shield and significantly reduces the amount of cosmic radiation
that reaches the Earth’s surface.
 Natural Sources of Radiation
For example, the mean dose rate from cosmic radiation at sea level at the equator is about 0.2 mSv/year,
while the dose rate at an altitude of 3000 m is about 1 mSv/year.

One very important radionuclide arises mainly from the interaction of neutrons in cosmic radiation with
nitrogen in the upper atmosphere to form carbon-14:

Carbon-14, which has a half-life of 5568 years, diffuses to the lower atmosphere, where it may become
incorporated in living matter.
 Natural Sources of Radiation

• Terrestrial Radiation
– The rocks and soil of the Earth contain small quantities of the radioactive
elements uranium, thorium, radium and their daughter products.
– Water contains small amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium

Thus the dose rate depends on the geographic location.

 Natural Sources of Radiation
Radon (222Rn) is a colourless and odourless gas formed from the radioactive decay of the tiny amounts of
natural uranium and thorium in rocks, soils and many building materials.

Radon diffuses from the ground and from building structures to give a significant concentration in the atmosphere in the
open air and, particularly, within buildings.

Radon is the single largest contributor to background radiation dose.

The radioactive daughter products of radon attach to dust particles which, when breathed in, irradiate the lungs and
increase the risk of lung cancer. The damage is caused by alpha radiation which, despite its small range, harms cells in
the sensitive lining of the lungs.
Studies in the UK show that radon is responsible for 3–5 per cent of all lung cancers and, according to the US
Environmental Protection Agency, radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking, and
causes 21 000 lung cancer deaths per year
in the USA.
 Natural Sources of Radiation

• Internal Radiation
– All animals (including people) have internal radiation
– Comes from radioactive potassium-40 and carbon-14
inside their bodies
• Present from birth
• Very minor sources of exposure to others
 Artificial Sources of Radiation

– Medical Sources (by far, the most significant man-

made source)
• Diagnostic x-rays
• Nuclear medicine procedures (iodine-131, cesium-137,
and others)

- Nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents

 Man-Made Sources of Radiation
• Consumer Products
– Building and road construction materials
– Combustible fuels, including gas and coal
– X-ray security systems
– Televisions
– Smoke detectors (americium)
 1% Others

Natural Background radiation is approximately 3 mSv/year (world average).

Biological effects of
radiation
 Biological effects of radiation

Biological effects of ionizing radiation are a

consequence of the ionization of atoms of
biomolecules, which might cause chemical
changes and alter or stop its functions.

A. Direct Action of damage

B. Indirect Action of damage

Biological effects of radiation
➢ Energy transmitted by radiation may act directly
causing ionization of the biological molecule or may
act indirectly through the free radicals resulting from
the ionization of the water molecules that surround
the cell.

➢ Due to ionization, proteins can lose the functionality

of its amino groups and modify its behavior; enzymes
would be deactivated; lipids will suffer peroxidation;
carbohydrates will dissociate; and nucleic acids chains
will experience ruptures and modifications of
structure.

➢ From all possible combined alterations, DNA is the

primary target for radiation because it contains
genes/chromosomes that hold information for cell
functioning and reproduction that are critical to cell
survival.
Biological effects of radiation
 Types of biological effects
ICRP Publication 103 (2007)

• Deterministic effect
• Stochastic effect
 Deterministic Effect
• Also called non-stochastic effect
• It occurs when populations of cells are injured
• Deterministic effects range
• from relatively trivial (e.g. slight reddening of the skin)
• to very serious (e.g. acute ulcer)
• with a very high dose to the whole body, death occurs within days or weeks

• Health effect depend on dose and irradiation regions

• Skin: Ulcer, Blister, Erythema, Hair loss
• Lens: Cataract
• Whole body: CNS syndrome, GI syndrome, Death

Depression of blood forming process in 3–7 days from an absorbed dose of ~ 0.5 Gy in the bone marrow;
and cataracts in several years from an acute absorbed dose of ~ 0.5 Gy.
 Characteristics of Deterministic effect

• Effects are certain (100%) above a

certain level of dose
• The dose level is called threshold dose
(The threshold for the effects depends
on the tissue being irradiated).
• Above this threshold, the severity
increases with dose

Threshold
 Stochastic effect
• It results from alternations in normal
cells caused by radiation
• Probability of occurrence increases with
radiation dose.
• There is no threshold. There is a
possibility of cancer occurrence when
receiving even very small dose (linear
non-threshold model).
• Its occurrence is all or none
• Effect itself (severity) does not worsen
with increased dose (e.g. cancer does
not get worse as received dose goes
up).
Somatic effect and Genetic effect

• Somatic effect: The effect is suffered by the

individual exposed with radiation.

• Genetic effect: The effect is suffered by the offspring

of the individual exposed with radiation.
Maximum Permissible Dose (MPD)
Radiation Protection
Review

➢ Sources of radiation
➢ Exponential attenuation
➢ Half-value layer (HVL)
➢ Tenth-value layer (TVL)
➢ Inverse square law
➢ Linear and mass attenuation coefficients
 ALARA
➢The goal of radiation protection is to keep
radiation doses As Low As Reasonably Achievable

ALARA means avoiding exposure to radiation that does not have a direct
benefit to an individual, even if the dose is small.
MINIMIZE EXTERNAL EXPOSURE

Time
(Reduce exposure time)

Distance
(Increase Distance)

Shielding
(Place dense object between you
and source of radiation)
 How To Minimize External Exposure

TIME : 60 mR/hr = 6 mR in 6 minutes

How To Minimize External Exposure
ID2=id2
Shielding • You can use something as
thin as a sheet of paper to
shield yourself from alpha
particles. Our outer layer of
dead skin cells can also act
as a shield.
• Most Beta particles can be
stopped by 1-2 cm of
plexiglass.
• Most gamma and x-ray
photons can be absorbed by
several cm of lead.
• Neutrons may require
several feet of concrete.
Shielding • Materials such as steel and
lead are not suitable as
shielding. Beta particles
striking such unyielding
materials are stopped so
suddenly that their energy
is converted into gamma
radiation which can pass
straight through. So
although it may seem
counterintuitive, when it
comes to halting beta
radiation a thin sheet of
Perspex is more appropriate
than several centimeters of
steel..
ALARA principle
 Workload (W)
The workload is a measure of the operational time or the amount of use
of the X-ray equipment.
Unit: (mA.min/week)

• Assume an average of 50 mAs per film, 3 films per

patient, 50 patients per day, 7 working days.

• W = 50 mAs x 3 films x 50 patients x 7 days

= 52,500 mAs per week
= 875 mA-min per week
• Radiographic Workload
• 10 (patients/day)
• 3(films/patient)
• 6(days a week)
• 100 mAs (per exposure)

• W= 300 mAmin/week
 Occupancy factor (T)
• T=1
Full occupancy, Areas that will be occupied by the same individuals for their full work day.
Administrative offices and receptionist areas, laboratories, pharmacies, attended waiting
rooms, children's indoor play areas, adjacent X-ray rooms, nurses' stations, X-ray control
rooms, living quarters.
T=1/2
Patient examination and treatment room.
• T=1/4
Partial Occupancy
Corridors, Rest rooms, elevators using operators.
• T=1/16
Occasional occupancy
Unattended vending areas, unattended waiting rooms, stairways, unattended elevators, and
outside areas used for pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
 Use factor (U)

• Primary Barrier
• U=1 Floors of radiation rooms, walls containing a vertical image
receptor; any other walls, doors or ceiling areas routinely exposed to
the direct radiation beam.
• U=1/4 Doors and wall areas of radiation rooms not routinely exposed
to the direct radiation beam.
• U= 1/16 Ceiling areas of radiation rooms not routinely exposed to the
direct radiation beam.
 Shielding calculation
1. What is the distance between the nearest point of the area to be shielding and the mean
operational position of the X-ray tube?
2. Is the area to be designated as a controlled or uncontrolled area, i.e., will the area be
occupied by radiation workers (subject to the limit of 20 mSv per year) or non-radiation
workers (subject to the limit of 1 mSv per year)?
3. What will be/is the occupancy factor (T) of the area? The occupancy factor is defined as
the time an area is normally occupied, expressed as a fraction of the working week.
4. What will be the use factor (U) of the required protective barrier? The use factor is defined
as the fraction of the operational time during which the useful beam will be/is directed at the
barrier or area under consideration.
5. What will be/is the workload (W) of the X-ray unit? The workload indicates the operational
time of an X-ray machine expressed in terms of milliampere-minutes per week.
6. What will be/is the maximum and average operating tube potential, and output?
 Shielding calculation

K= 2
Pd /WUT
P = maximum permissible weekly exposure expressed in R/week. For controlled
areas P = 0.04 R/week; for uncontrolled areas P = 0.002 R/week.
d = distance in metres from the target to the primary area.
W = workload in mA-min/week
U = use factor
T = occupancy factor
K = exposure per unit workload at unit distance, in R/mA-min at 1 metre.
Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear Medicine
Tc-99m

Radioactive decay
ATOM
Gamma ray/photon emission
(140KeV)

Gamma camera

Light pulse

Voltage Signal

Image
 Gamma Camera

• A gamma camera is a device

used to image gamma
radiation emitting
radioisotopes.
 Radiopharmaceuticals
A radiopharmaceutical is typically made of two components, the radionuclide and
the chemical compound to which it is bound.

In designing a radiopharmaceutical, a pharmaceutical is first chosen on the basis of

its preferential uptake (localization) by a given organ or its participation in the
physiological function of the organ i.e. the morphology and / or the physiology of the
organ can be assessed.

To highlight a particular organ the radioisotope must be administered in the form of a

chemical agent (radiopharmaceutical) which addresses preferably a particular organ (e.g.
iodine in thyroid) or the physiological function of a particular organ (e.g. blood flow).
 Biological Half-life
The final fate of the radiotracer depends on how the addressed organ deals with the molecule, whether
it is absorbed, broken down by intracellular chemical processes or whether it exits from the cells and is
removed by kidney or liver processes. These processes determine the biological half-life TB of the
radiopharmaceutical (half-life  time to reduce material to 50% of its initial amount).

The effective half-life TE of a radiopharmaceutical is a combination of the physical half-life T1/2 and the biological
half-life TB :

The effective half-life of radiopharmaceuticals containing a long lived radioisotope can be reduced by choosing a
chemical component with a short biological half-life.

A close matching of the effective half-life with the duration of the study is important for dosimetric considerations.
It also is important as far as the availability and expense of the radiopharmaceutical is concerned.
 Selection of radiopharmaceuticals
➢ The radiopharmaceutical must be in the appropriate chemical form which will allow
it to be absorbed by the particular organ to be investigated.
➢ A suitable half-life; long enough for monitoring the physiological organ functions to
be studied, but not too long to avoid unnecessary radiation exposure.
➢ Photon must have sufficient energy to penetrate body tissue with minimal
attenuation as well as suitable for gamma camera (100 to 300keV). Greater than
this, photons are not confined to the channels in the collimator and so resolution
deteriorates.
➢ Decay via photo emission (-ray) to minimize absorption effects in body tissue. If
alpha/beta particles emits in addition to gamma radiation, these will deliver high
dose to the organ that takes up the isotope. Half life of the daughter isotope, if
radioactive, is also important. Decay product (daughter) should have minimal short-
lived activity.
 Isotope Selection
➢ The primary radionuclide used for diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures is Technetium-99m (99mTc).
80% of all nuclear medical procedures use the radioisotope Technetium-99m.

➢ The primary radionuclide used for therapeutic nuclear medicine procedures is Iodine-131 (131I).

o 99mTc is useful for several reasons:

✓ It can be easily combined with several pharmaceuticals.

✓ Its half-life of six hours is long enough to allow practical imaging but not so long that the patient,
public and environment are over-burdened with radiation.
✓ It gives off gamma rays at 140keV which is a good match to the sensitivity range of the Gamma
Camera.
✓ It is a pure gamma emitter.
Tc-99m labelled Application
Macroaggregated albumin (MAA) Lung perfusion
Methylene diphosphonate (MDP) Bone
Sulfur colloid (SC) Liver and spleen, bone marrow and
GI bleeding
Pentetate (DTPA) Lung ventilation, brain and kidney
Iminodiacetic acid derivatives (HIDA, Hepatobiliary (gallbladder)
DISIDA)
Sestamibi (Cardiolite) & Tetrofosmin Myocardial perfusion
(Myoview)
Mercaptoacetlyglyclglycine (MAG-3) Kidney
Ethyl cysteinate dimer (Neurolite) Brain
Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) Kidney and tumor
Gluceptate Kidney, brain
 Isotope generator
Problem: Because 99mTC decays so rapidly, a substantial portion of total production quantity is lost
before it can be administered.

Radiopharmaceutical generators:
• are constructed on the principle of the decay-growth relationship between a long-lived parent and its
short-lived daughter radionuclide.
❑ i.e. a long-lived parent nuclide is allowed to decay to its short-lived daughter nuclide and the
latter is then chemically separated.
e.g. 99Mo (T½ = 66.6 hours)  99mTc (T½ = 6 hours)

The importance of generators lies in the fact that they:

• are easily transportable; and

• can serve as sources of short-lived radionuclides in institutions located in remote areas where the
services of a radiopharmacy is impracticable.
Isotope Generator
 Iodine uptake studies
The radioactive iodine uptake test (RAIU) is also known as a thyroid
uptake. It is a measurement of thyroid function, but does not involve
imaging.

Radioactive iodine (I-123 or I-131) in liquid or capsule form is administered.

After a time (usually 6 and 24 hours later), the radioactivity measured using
gamma probe.

Administered counts are obtained by counting a standard

(equivalent to the administered dose) in a neck phantom.

Normal values:
6 hours: 3 to 16%
24 hours: 8 to 25%
 Dynamic Renal Function
➢ The function of the kidneys is assessed by measuring the rate of
removal of a radiopharmaceutical from the blood.
➢ 99mTc-MAG3 (mercaptoacetyltriglycine), which is extracted
through glomerular excretion is commonly used as tracer.

➢ The function of the kidney is determined by imaging the way the tracer
moves through the kidney as a function of time.
➢ The gamma camera is placed to view the kidneys from a posterior
direction and 100 MBq of MAG3 is injected.
➢ A sequence of images are collected over time.
➢ The passage of tracer from the glomerulus takes about 3 minutes and
during this period following the first arrival of tracer along the renal
artery, no tracer leaves the kidney. The kidney therefore accumulates
tracer and the total activity in the kidney increases.
➢ The rate at which the tracer is removed is proportional to the
concentration of tracer in the blood. As tracer is removed this
concentration decreases and thus the rate of removal decreases.
 Dynamic Renal Function

The outflow from the right kidney is partially obstructed and this is reflected in the shape of the kidney curve and the
visual appearance of the kidney. The left kidney is normal.
 SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography

➢ SPECT is a nuclear imaging scan that

integrates computed tomography (CT)
and a radioactive tracer.

➢ Monitors level of biological activity.

➢ Gamma camera acquires multiple 2-D

images, from multiple angles.
Computer is then used to apply a
tomographic reconstruction algorithm
to the multiple projections, forming a SPECT
3-D data set.
SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
SPECT
Reconstruction

sinogram for each

transaxial slice
Filtered back projection

1 angle 2 angles 4 angles 16 angles 128 angles

Applications

➢ Bone scan
➢ Thyroid scan
➢ Lung ventilation
➢ Lung Perfusion
etc.
 Bone Scan

➢ Bone consists of calcium phosphates.

➢ Phosphate compounds are rapidly absorbed into
bone when introduced via the bloodstream.
➢ Phosphate compounds can be labelled with 99mTc
and thus bones can be visualized using gamma
camera.
➢ 99mTc-methylene diphosphonate (99mTc-MDP) is
used in bone scanning.

The mechanism of increased uptake appears to

depend on a mixture of increased vascular flow and
osteoblastic activity, i.e. deposition of new bone, and
both of these are increased around bone tumours
and fractures.
Bone Scan

➢ Scan A shows hot spots (dark areas) in both

knees, a sign of arthritis.

➢ Scan B shows numerous bone hot spots, a

result of cancer that has spread to multiple
locations.
 PET: Positron Emission Tomography
• A positron emission tomography is a nuclear medical imaging
technique which produces a three dimensional image of functional
processes in the body.
⚫ Detect cancer.
⚫ Determine whether a cancer has spread in the body.
⚫ Assess the effectiveness of a treatment plan, such as cancer therapy.
⚫ Determine if a cancer has returned after treatment.
⚫ Determine blood flow to the heart muscle.
⚫ Determine the effects of a heart attack, or myocardial infarction, on areas of the heart.
⚫ Identify areas of the heart muscle that would benefit from a procedure such as angioplasty or coronary
artery bypass surgery (in combination with a myocardial perfusion scan).
⚫ Evaluate brain abnormalities, such as tumors, memory disorders and seizures and other central nervous
system disorders.
⚫ To map normal human brain and heart function.
 Positron Emitting Isotopes
IsotopeHalf-Life Production
Carbon-11 20.5 min 14N(p,a)11C

Nitrogen-13 10.0 min 16O(p,a)13N

Oxygen-15 2.1 min 14N(d,n)15O

Fluorine-18 110 min 18O(p,n)18F

18F FDG ( 18F labeled fluorodeoxyglucose )

Radiotracer

FDG

18F FDG ( 18F labeled fluorodeoxyglucose )

PET basics
n

511KeV
~1-3mm
b+ • Positron travels 1-3 mm before
annihilation (depending on energy)
b-
511KeV
• Energy and Momentum conservation
- 511 keV Photons and back-to-back

• Simultaneous detection of two 511KeV photons →

- event along line between detectors
Basic Principles

Processing
DETECTOR Electronics
RING
PMT

Coincidence
Processor
COINCIDENCE
R PROCESSING

Data Sorting,
Histogram

PMT Image Recon

Processing Computer Images
Electronics
• PET detects these photons with a PET camera which allows to determine
where they came from, where the nucleus was when it decayed.
Applications
Applications

Image of heart which has had a Normal heart

mycardial infarction (heart
attack). The arrow points to
areas that have been damaged
by the attack, indicating "dead"
myocardial tissue.
Applications
Radiotherapy Equipment
 Radiotherapy
➢ Radiotherapy is a treatment where radiation is used to kill cancer cells.
➢ Radiation energy damages cancer cells and stop them from growing or
spreading in the body.

Types of Radiotherapy:

• External Beam Radiation Therapy (Teletherapy): Radiation delivered from a distant

source.

• Internal Radiation Therapy (Brachytherapy): Placing radiation sources as close as

possible to the tumor site.
 Teletherapy equipment
• Radiation types commonly used in teletherapy: X-rays, gamma rays,
electron beam.

Standard machines used for radiotherapy:

X-ray machine:
• Superficial x-ray machine: 50 - 100 kV
• Orthovoltage x-ray machine: 100 - 500 kV

Linear accelerator (LINAC):

• Megavoltage x rays: 4 - 25 MV
• Electrons: 4 - 25 MeV

Cobalt-60 teletherapy machine: gamma rays 1.17 MeV, 1.33 MeV

Superficial (SXT) and Orthovoltage (DXT) radiotherapy
➢SXT utilizes x-ray energies of between 50 and 100 kV, having a treatment
range of up to 5mm.
➢DXT utilizes 200 to 500 kV x-rays penetrating to a useful depth of 4 – 6cm.
➢The shallow penetrating power of both SXT and DXT means that they are
superior to megavoltage external beam radiation for the treatment of
superficial lesions.
➢Superficial and orthovoltage radiotherapy are used for the treatment of
skin lesions such as melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and basal
cell carcinoma (BCC) as well as non-malignant skin conditions such as
keloids.
➢Relatively high absorption of these low energy x-rays in bone also means
that orthovoltage treatment is well suited to the palliative treatment of
painful bony metastases in shallow regions such as the ribs and sternum.
Mega voltage therapy
Linear Accelerator (LINAC)

➢Photon (x-ray) Beam

4-25MV

➢Electron Beam
4-25MeV
Wave guide for electron acceleration
 Isocenter

➢ The gantry, collimator, and table all rotate

around a single point, called the isocenter.
The center of treatment beam is at
isocenter.
➢ The use of an isocenter allows for reliable
and reproducible movement of treatment
machine with respect to the patient.
Cobalt-60 machine
Cobalt-60 machine
Cobalt-60 machine
Cobalt-60 machine
Stereotactic Radiotherapy
Stereotactic Radiotherapy

Gamma knife
Origin of X-rays
 Origin of X-rays
➢Discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895
➢1901, he won the first ever Nobel Prize in Physics.
➢Röntgen died on 10 February 1923 from carcinoma of the intestine.
 Origin of X-rays
X-rays are produced by the conversion of electron kinetic
energy into electromagnetic radiation.
30-140
 Origin of X-rays

Two types:
▪Bremsstrahlung (“braking radiation”) X-rays or
Beam radiation
▪Characteristics X-rays
 Bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung radiation is the radiation given off by an electron due to
its acceleration caused by an electric field of an atomic nucleus.

The x-rays produced at a given accelerating potential V vary in energy (polyenergetic), but
none has energy higher than the K.E. of the electrons.
 Characteristic X-rays
➢Incident electron knockout inner shell electron.
➢The vacancy is filled by an electron from higher energy level.
➢Energy difference between the two energy levels is emitted as X-ray.
➢Called characteristic because the energy depend on the characteristics of the target
atoms.
X-ray circuit
 Production of X-rays
High energy electrons incident on a material can produce electromagnetic waves, known as X-rays

Components of an X-ray tube:

1. Glass envelope or tube: highly vacuum, to prevent collision of electrons
2. Hot filament: supplied with a low voltage heating current, filament serves as the cathode.
3. Target: serves as the anode.
4. High voltage supply
 Thermionic Emission
• The cathode has its filament circuit that supplies it with necessary filament
current to heat it up. As the temperature increases, the surface electrons
gain energy. The energy acquired by the surface electrons allows them to
move a short distance off the surface thus resulting in emission.
• A pure tungsten filament must be heated to a temperature of 2200°C to
emit a useful number of electrons

➢ 10 voltage potential difference and 3-6

amperes of filament current is
supplied.
 Efficiency in X-ray production
• Efficiency = KV x Z x 10-4 (%)
• Example: Tungsten target (Z=74), Tube voltage=100kV
• Efficiency=0.74%
• Remaining 99.26% energy appears as heat in the anode

• Some tubes contain oil that serves

as an insulator against electric shock
and as a thermal cushion
• Dissipate heat
• Some protective housing has cooling
fan to air-cool the tube and oil
 Filament
• A coil of wire about 2mm in diameter and 1 or 2 cm long.
• Filaments are usually made of tungsten
• Tungsten provides higher thermionic emission than other metals
• Tungsten has a very high melting point (3,422 °C)
 Anode
• Anode is the positive side of the x-ray tube
• The anode conducts electricity, radiates heat and contains the target
• Two types of anodes
• Stationary & Rotating
Rotating anode
 Focal spot
• The area of the anode’s target where x-rays are emitted
• A- Stationary
• B- Rotating

Side view
Front view
X-ray Spectrum
X-ray spectrum: variable mA

60 kVp
 Target material

Efficiency = KV x Z x 10-4 (%)

➢ High melting point (3,422 °C)

➢ High atomic number (Z=74)
➢ High thermal conductivity
Why is Tungsten chosen as target material?
 Factors Affecting the x-ray emission spectrum

❑ Tube voltage
❑ Tube current
❑ Target material
❑ Added filtration
❑ Voltage waveform

❖ Average energy is around 1/3 of the peak energy.

 Filament Circuit

➢ The filament circuit regulates current flow through the filament of the x-ray tube.
➢ The power to heat the x-ray tube filament is provided by a small step-down transformer.
➢ Current flow of 3 to 5 A with an applied voltage of about 10 V are typically used.
High voltage circuit
X-ray tube