MODULE II

Network Architecture, Standards,

Protocols and Topologies

Lesson 1: Network Architecture

Lesson 2: Different Network

Protocols

Lesson 3: Network Topologies

Lesson 4: Switching and the OSI

Model

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MODULE II

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE, STANDARDS, PROTOCOLS AND TOPOLOGIES

Introduction
This module covers in depth discussion of Network architecture, standards and
protocols. It covers discussion of main type of network architecture, the different
network protocols, the OSI model and different network topologies.

In the network architecture, you will learn the main types of network
architecture including its features.

In Network protocol, you will learn how network protocols work. An in-depth
discussion of the classification of network protocols.

In this module, you will also learn the different network topologies including
its features, advantages and disadvantages.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the difference between main types of network architecture

2. Identify and discuss the different classification of network protocols;
3. Describe how the switches in the OSI layers operates;
4. Discuss and Illustrate the different network topologies.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting or contact your tutor at CIT office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1


Network Architecture

Network Architecture

Computer network architecture defines the physical and logical framework of a

computer network. It outlines how computers are organized in the network and what
tasks are assigned to those computers. Network architecture components include
hardware, software, transmission media (wired or wireless), network topology, and
communications protocols.

Main Types of Network Architecture

There are two types of network architecture:

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

In P2P architecture, two or more computers are connected as “peers,”

meaning they have equal power and privileges on the network. A P2P network
does not require a central server for coordination. Instead, each computer on
the network acts as both a client (a computer that needs to access a service)
and a server (a computer that serves the needs of the client accessing a
service). Each peer makes some of its resources available to the network,
sharing storage, memory, bandwidth, and processing power.

Some major features of this network include:

• Each device in a P2P network gives resources to the network and consumes
resources that the network provides.
• In a P2P network, files are shared between the different computers.

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• Being a part of a P2P network enables sharing equipment such as printers

between the various devices in the network.
• The setup of a peer-to-peer network requires specialized software.
• Some P2P networks are formed by overlaying a virtual network on a physical
network. The network uses the physical connection to transfer data while the
virtual overlay allows the computers on the network to communicate with
each other.

2. Client/Server

In a client/server network, a central server or group of servers manage

resources and deliver services to client devices in the network. The clients in the
network communicate with other clients through the server. Unlike the P2P model,
clients in a client/server architecture don’t share their resources. This architecture
type is sometimes called a tiered model because it's designed with multiple levels or
tiers.
A client-server network is the medium through which clients access resources
and services from a central computer, via either a local area network (LAN) or a
wide-area network (WAN), such as the Internet. A unique server called a daemon
may be employed for the sole purpose of awaiting client requests, at which point
the network connection is initiated until the client request has been fulfilled.

Network traffic is categorized as client-to-server (north-south traffic) or

server-to-server (east-west traffic). Popular network services include e-mail, file
sharing, printing, and the World Wide Web. A major advantage of the client-server
network is the central management of applications and data.

Benefits of Client-Server Computing

There are numerous advantages of the client server architecture model:

• A single server hosting all the required data in a single place facilitates
easy protection of data and management of user authorization and
authentication.
• Resources such as network segments, servers, and computers can be
added to a client-server network without any significant interruptions.

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• Data can be accessed efficiently without requiring clients and the server
to be in close proximity.
• All nodes in the client-server system are independent, requesting data
only from the server, which facilitates easy upgrades, replacements, and
relocation of the nodes.
• Data that is transferred through client-server protocols are platform-
agnostic.

Difference Between Client and Server

Clients, also known as service requesters, are pieces of computer hardware or

server software that request resources and services made available by a server.
Client computing is classified as Thick, Thin, or Hybrid.
• Thick Client: a client that provides rich functionality, performs the majority of
data processing itself, and relies very lightly upon the server.
• Thin Client: a thin-client server is a lightweight computer that relies heavily on
the resources of the host computer -- an application server performs the
majority of any required data processing.
• Hybrid Client: possessing a combination of thin client and thick client
characteristics, a hybrid client relies on the server to store persistent data, but
is capable of local processing.

1. Identify at least 3 applications using peer-to-peer network and

why are they using it.
2. If you are to connect 10 computers and 1 printer to a network,
what network architecture do you think would be suited
considering that they wish to share files and the printer among the
users and a point of sale program that can be accessed by within
the network?

Lesson 2


Network Protocols

Network Protocols

Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that
dictate how devices exchange data across networks. In other words, network
protocols can be equated to languages that two devices must understand for seamless

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communication of information, regardless of their infrastructure and design

disparities.

How network protocols work

To understand the nuances of network protocols, it's imperative to know about

the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model first. Considered the primary
architectural model for internet working communications, the majority of network
protocols used today are structurally based on the OSI model.

The seven layers in the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers,
including layers 7, 6, and 5, and lower layers, including layers 4, 3, 2, and 1. The
upper layers deal with application issues, and the lower layers deal with data
transport issues.

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Network protocols divide the communication process into discrete tasks across
every layer of the OSI model. One or more network protocols operate at each layer in
the communication exchange.

Classification of network protocols

Now that you know how the OSI model works, you can dive straight into the
classification of protocols. The following are some of the most prominent protocols
used in network communication.

Application layer network protocols

1. DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DHCP is a communication protocol that enables network administrators to
automate the assignment of IP addresses in a network. In an IP network, every device
connecting to the internet requires a unique IP. DHCP lets network admins distribute
IP addresses from a central point and automatically send a new IP address when a
device is plugged in from a different place in the network. DHCP works on a client-
server model.

Advantages of using DHCP

• Centralized management of IP addresses.

• Seamless addition of new clients into a network.
• Reuse of IP addresses, reducing the total number of IP addresses
required.
Disadvantages of using DHCP

• Tracking internet activity becomes tedious, as the same device can have
multiple IP addresses over a period of time.
• Computers with DHCP cannot be used as servers, as their IPs change
over time.
2. DNS: Domain Name System protocol
The DNS protocol helps in translating or mapping host names to IP addresses.
DNS works on a client-server model, and uses a distributed database over a hierarchy
of name servers.

Hosts are identified based on their IP addresses, but memorizing an IP address

is difficult due to its complexity. IPs are also dynamic, making it all the more
necessary to map domain names to IP addresses. DNS helps resolve this issue by
converting the domain names of websites into numerical IP addresses.

Advantages

• DNS facilitates internet access.

• Eliminates the need to memorize IP addresses.
Disadvantages

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• DNS queries don't carry information pertaining to the client who

initiated it. This is because the DNS server only sees the IP from where
the query came from, making the server susceptible to manipulation
from hackers.
• DNS root servers, if compromised, could enable hackers to redirect to
other pages for phishing data.
3. FTP: File Transfer Protocol
File Transfer Protocol enables file sharing between hosts, both local and
remote, and runs on top of TCP. For file transfer, FTP creates two TCP connections:
control and data connection. The control connection is used to transfer control
information like passwords, commands to retrieve and store files, etc., and the data
connection is used to transfer the actual file. Both of these connections run in parallel
during the entire file transfer process.

Advantages

• Enables sharing large files and multiple directories at the same time.
• Lets you resume file sharing if it was interrupted.
• Lets you recover lost data, and schedule a file transfer.
Disadvantages

• FTP lacks security. Data, usernames, and passwords are transferred in

plain text, making them vulnerable to malicious actors.
• FTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it non-compliant with industry
standards.
4. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTP is an application layer protocol used for distributed, collaborative, and
hypermedia information systems. It works on a client-server model, where the web
browser acts as the client. Data such as text, images, and other multimedia files are
shared over the World Wide Web using HTTP. As a request and response type protocol,
the client sends a request to the server, which is then processed by the server before
sending a response back to the client.

HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning the client and server are only aware of
each other while the connection between them is intact. After that, both the client
and server forget about each other's existence. Due to this phenomenon, the client
and server can't both retain information between requests.

Advantages

• Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of lesser concurrent
connections.
• Errors can be reported without closing connections.
• Owing to lesser TCP connections, network congestion is reduced.

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Disadvantages

• HTTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it less secure.

• HTTP requires more power to establish communication and transfer
data.
5. IMAP and IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)
IMAP is an email protocol that lets end users access and manipulate messages
stored on a mail server from their email client as if they were present locally on their
remote device. IMAP follows a client-server model, and lets multiple clients access
messages on a common mail server concurrently. IMAP includes operations for
creating, deleting, and renaming mailboxes; checking for new messages; permanently
removing messages; setting and removing flags; and much more. The current version
of IMAP is version 4 revision 1.

Advantages

• As the emails are stored on the mail server, local storage utilization is
minimal.
• In case of accidental deletion of emails or data, it is always possible to
retrieve them as they are stored on the mail server.
Disadvantages

• Emails won't work without an active internet connection.

• High utilization of emails by end users requires more mailbox storage,
thereby augmenting costs.
6. POP and POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)
The Post Office Protocol is also an email protocol. Using this protocol, the end
user can download emails from the mail server to their own email client. Once the
emails are downloaded locally, they can be read without an internet connection. Also,
once the emails are moved locally, they get deleted from the mail server, freeing up
space. POP3 is not designed to perform extensive manipulations with the messages on
the mail server, unlike IMAP4. POP3 is the latest version of the Post Office Protocol.

Advantages

• Read emails on local devices without internet connection.

• The mail server need not have high storage capacity, as the emails get
deleted when they're moved locally.
Disadvantages

• If the local device on which the emails were downloaded crashes or gets
stolen, the emails are lost.
7. SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SMTP is a protocol designed to transfer electronic mail reliably and efficiently.
SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send the email, whereas POP and IMAP are used
to retrieve emails on the end user's side. SMTP transfers emails between systems, and

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notifies on incoming emails. Using SMTP, a client can transfer an email to another
client on the same network or another network through a relay or gateway access
available to both networks.

Advantages

• Ease of installation.
• Connects to any system without any restriction.
• It doesn't need any development from your side.
Disadvantages

• Back and forth conversations between servers can delay sending a

message, and also increases the chance of the message not being
delivered.
• Certain firewalls can block the ports used with SMTP.
8. Telnet: Terminal emulation protocol
Telnet is an application layer protocol that enables a user to communicate with
a remote device. A Telnet client is installed on the user's machine, which accesses
the command line interface of another remote machine that runs a Telnet server
program.

Telnet is mostly used by network administrators to access and manage remote

devices. To access a remote device, a network admin needs to enter the IP or host
name of the remote device, after which they will be presented with a virtual terminal
that can interact with the host.

Advantages

• Compatible with multiple operating systems.

• Saves a lot of time due to its swift connectivity with remote devices.
Disadvantages

• Telnet lacks encryption capabilities and sends across critical information

in clear text, making it easier for malicious actors.
• Expensive due to slow typing speeds.
9. SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
SNMP is an application layer protocol used to manage nodes, like servers,
workstations, routers, switches, etc., on an IP network. SNMP enables network admins
to monitor network performance, identify network glitches, and troubleshoot them.
SNMP protocol is comprised of three components: a managed device, an SNMP agent,
and an SNMP manager.

The SNMP agent resides on the managed device. The agent is a software module
that has local knowledge of management information, and translates that information
into a form compatible with the SNMP manager. The SNMP manager presents the data
obtained from the SNMP agent, helping network admins manage nodes effectively.

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Currently, there are three versions of SNMP: SNMP v1, SNMP v2, and SNMP v3.
Both versions 1 and 2 have many features in common, but SNMP v2 offers
enhancements such as additional protocol operations. SNMP version 3 (SNMP v3) adds
security and remote configuration capabilities to the previous versions.

Presentation layer network protocols

LPP: Lightweight Presentation Protocol

The Lightweight Presentation Protocol helps provide streamlined support for
OSI application services in networks running on TCP/IP protocols for some constrained
environments. LPP is designed for a particular class of OSI applications, namely those
entities whose application context contains only an Association Control Service
Element (ACSE) and a Remote Operations Service Element (ROSE). LPP is not
applicable to entities whose application context is more extensive, i.e., contains a
Reliable Transfer Service Element.

Session layer network protocols

RPC: Remote Procedure Call protocol

RPC is a protocol for requesting a service from a program in a remote computer
through a network, and can be used without having to understand the underlying
network technologies. RPC uses TCP or UDP for carrying the messages between
communicating programs. RPC also works on client-server model. The requesting
program is the client, and the service providing program is the server.

Advantages

• RPC omits many protocol layers to improve performance.

• With RPC, code rewriting or redeveloping efforts are minimized.
Disadvantages

• Not yet proven to work effectively over wide-area networks.

• Apart from TCP/IP, RPC does not support other transport protocols.

Transport layer network protocols

1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

TCP is a transport layer protocol that provides a reliable stream delivery and
virtual connection service to applications through the use of sequenced
acknowledgement. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, as it requires a connection
to be established between applications before data transfer. Through flow control
and acknowledgement of data, TCP provides extensive error checking. TCP ensures
sequencing of data, meaning the data packets arrive in order at the receiving end.
Retransmission of lost data packets is also feasible with TCP.

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Advantages

• TCP ensures three things: data reaches the destination, reaches it on time, and
reaches it without duplication.
• TCP automatically breaks data into packets before transmission.
Disadvantages
• TCP cannot be used for broadcast and multicast connections.
2. UDP: User Datagram Protocol
UDP is a connection-less transport layer protocol that provides a simple but
unreliable message service. Unlike TCP, UDP adds no reliability, flow control, or error
recovery functions. UDP is useful in situations where the reliability mechanisms of
TCP are not necessary. Retransmission of lost data packets isn't possible with UDP.

Advantages

• Broadcast and multicast connections are possible with UDP.

• UDP is faster than TCP.
Disadvantages

• In UDP, it's possible that a packet may not be delivered, be delivered twice, or
not be delivered at all.
• Manual disintegration of data packets is needed.

Network layer protocols

1. IP: Internet Protocol (IPv4)
IPv4 is a network layer protocol that contains addressing and control
information, which helps packets be routed in a network. IP works in tandem with
TCP to deliver data packets across the network. Under IP, each host is assigned a 32-
bit address comprised of two major parts: the network number and host number. The
network number identifies a network and is assigned by the internet, while the host
number identifies a host on the network and is assigned by a network admin. The IP
is only responsible for delivering the packets, and TCP helps puts them back in the
right order.

Advantages

• IPv4 encrypts data to ensure privacy and security.

• With IP, routing data becomes more scalable and economical.
Disadvantages

• IPv4 is labor intensive, complex, and prone to errors.

2. IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6
IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol, a network layer protocol that
possesses addressing and control information for enabling packets to be routed in the

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network. IPv6 was created to deal with IPv4 exhaustion. It increases the IP address
size from 32 bits to 128 bits to support more levels of addressing.

Advantages

• More efficient routing and packet processing compared to IPv4.

• Better security compared to IPv4.
Disadvantages

• IPv6 is not compatible with machines that run on IPv4.

• Challenge in upgrading the devices to IPv6.
3. ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP is a network layer supporting protocol used by network devices to send
error messages and operational information. ICMP messages delivered in IP packets
are used for out-of-band messages related to network operation or misoperation. ICMP
is used to announce network errors, congestion, and timeouts, as well assist in
troubleshooting.

Advantages

• ICMP is used to diagnose network issues.

Disadvantages

• Sending a lot of ICMP messages increases network traffic.

• End users are affected if malicious users send many ICMP destination
unreachable packets.

Data link layer network protocols

1. ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol helps map IP addresses to physical machine
addresses (or a MAC address for Ethernet) recognized in the local network. A table
called an ARP cache is used to maintain a correlation between each IP address and its
corresponding MAC address. ARP offers the rules to make these correlations, and helps
convert addresses in both directions.

Advantages

• MAC addresses need not be known or memorized, as the ARP cache contains all
the MAC addresses and maps them automatically with IPs.

Disadvantages

• ARP is susceptible to security attacks called ARP spoofing attacks.

• When using ARP, sometimes a hacker might be able to stop the traffic
altogether. This is also known as ARP denial-of-services.

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2. SLIP: Serial Line IP

SLIP is used for point-to-point serial connections using TCP/IP. SLIP is used on
dedicated serial links, and sometimes for dial-up purposes. SLIP is useful for allowing
mixes of hosts and routers to communicate with one another; for example, host-host,
host-router, and router-router are all common SLIP network configurations. SLIP is
merely a packet framing protocol: It defines a sequence of characters that frame IP
packets on a serial line. It does not provide addressing, packet type identification,
error detection or correction, or compression mechanisms.

Advantages

• Since it has a small overhead, it is suitable for usage in microcontrollers.

• It reuses existing dial-up connections and telephone lines.
• It's easy to deploy since it's based on the Internet Protocol.
DIsadvantages

• SLIP doesn't support automatic setup of network connections in multiple OSI layers at
the same time.
• SLIP does not support synchronous connections, such as a connection created through
the internet from a modem to an internet service provider (ISP).
• As you may now be aware, switching fits into the OSI model at Layer 2. With switching
and bridging happening at Layer 2, they deal with the MAC address information found
in the Ethernet frames. If you go down to Layer 1, a device such as a repeater or hub
simply takes the electrical impulse on the wire and amplifies the signal. A switch, on
the other hand, reads the Ethernet frame into memory, reconstructs it, and
retransmits it out of the destination port (or all ports, in the case of a broadcast
frame).

1. Which of the following illustrations appropriately shows the

relationships between the 7 layers of the osi model and the tcip
and ip protocols used in the internet. Discuss your answer.

2. Describe ARP of the TCP/IP protocol.

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Lesson 3


Network Protocols

Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

There are two approaches to network topology:

1. Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections
(wires, cables, etc.) of how the network is arranged. Setup, maintenance,
and provisioning tasks require insight into the physical network.
2. Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the
network is set up, including which nodes connect to each other and in which
ways, as well as how data is transmitted through the network. Logical
network topology includes any virtual and cloud resources.
Types of Network Topology

Bus Topology
A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a single cable running
in a single direction from one end of the network to the other—which is why it’s
sometimes called a “line topology” or “backbone topology.” Data flow on the network
also follows the route of the cable, moving in one direction.

Features of Bus Topology

• It transmits data only in one direction.
• Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.

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Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the
network decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• It is slower than the ring topology.
Ring Topology

Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring). The data can
travel through the ring network in either one direction or both directions, with each
device having exactly two neighbors.

Features of Ring Topology

• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in
the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters
are used in the network.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
• In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can
act as a backup, to keep the network up.
• Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more
nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

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• Cheap to install and expand

• Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
• Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
• Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through
a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network
nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices.

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There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements.
Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest
distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids
those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no
routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the
data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.
Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

• Fully connected.
• Robust.
• Not flexible

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Each connection can carry its own data load.
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.

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• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration is difficult.

• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

• Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

• Extension of bus and star topologies.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• Heavily cabled.
• Costly.
• If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
• Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.

For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

• It is a combination of two or topologies
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• Complex in design.
• Costly.

1. What topology is suited if you have 10 computers and a printer to

be shared among the users. Discuss your answer.
2. Identify all network topologies and cite where these topologies are
used.

Lesson 4


Switching and the OSI Model

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Switching and OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model provides a layered network
design framework that establishes a standard so that devices from different vendors
work together.

OSI Model for Open Systems Interconnection

Layer 2 (The Data-Link Layer)

Layer 2 switches operate using physical network addresses. Physical addresses, also
known as link-layer, hardware, or MAC-layer addresses, identify individual devices.
Most hardware devices are permanently assigned this number during the
manufacturing process.

Switches operating at Layer 2 are very fast because they’re just sorting physical
addresses, but they usually aren’t very smart.

With switching and bridging happening at Layer 2, they deal with the MAC address
information found in the Ethernet frames. If you go down to Layer 1, a device such as
a repeater or hub simply takes the electrical impulse on the wire and amplifies the
signal. A switch, on the other hand, reads the Ethernet frame into memory,
reconstructs it, and retransmits it out of the destination port (or all ports, in the case
of a broadcast frame).

Switches support the following three basic types of forwarding mechanisms:

Store-and-forward switching: A process by which the switch reads the entire Ethernet
frame into memory before examining it, at which time the switch will identify the
destination address and make a forwarding decision. This type of switching provides
two benefits: The switch is assured of a complete frame and no collision will occur on
the network before sending the data. The drawback is a slight delay on forwarding of
the data.

Cut-through switching: With this process, a forwarding decision is made as soon as

enough of the frame is read, which can be as little as 17 bytes of data past the
preamble. From that much data, the switch can identify the difference among
Ethernet II, IEEE 802.3, IEEE 802.2, and Ethernet_SNAP frame types. After this
difference is identified, the process of forwarding the frame to its destination can
begin.

Depending on the type of frame and the use of Access Control Lists (ACLs), a total of
54 bytes of data can be read. This condition can significantly reduce the delay in
forwarding data to its destination, because without the store-and-forward delay, you
can approach true wire speed. The problem occurs when you experience a collision
on your network for a data frame that is partially forwarded, making the work done
forwarding the frame useless.

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This issue is mitigated on networks that are entirely switched because collisions will
occur only when you have two or more devices connected with a hub that is then
connected to a port on a switch. By eliminating hubs on your network, you eliminate
collisions.

Fragment-free switching: This process is similar to cut-through, with the exception

that the forwarding decision is not made until the first 64 bytes of the data frame are
read and are collision free. After 64 bytes are read, the switch has enough data to
forward a legal frame because Ethernet requires frames to be at least 64 bytes.

On a fully switched network, this process does not provide a benefit over cut-through
switching. However, if the chance for collisions is high, this process is preferable to
cut-through switching because it prevents forwarding frames that are less than the
minimum Ethernet size. (These illegally sized frames are called runts.)

Both switching methods that forward data before the entire frame is read into the
switch have a critical flaw when dealing with the integrity of the Ethernet frame. The
last piece of data is the FCS, or Frame CheckSum, which is used to verify that the
Ethernet frame that has arrived at the switch has not been altered or changed through
a network error.

Because the switch has not read the entire frame, the switch is not able to calculate
a checksum or compare it to the FCS found at the end of the frame. Frames with a
failed checksum should not be forwarded; but in this case, most of the switch has
already been forwarded by the time the switch knows the checksum is wrong.

Because of the speed of the current switches, you will likely find that most switches
on the market, like Cisco’s switches, use the store-and-forward method of passing
data because the new speeds of moving data internally in the switch outweigh the
cost of forwarding bad data.sss

Layer 3 (The Network Layer)

Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify locations on the network.
Physical addresses identify devices; network addresses identify locations. A location
can be a LAN workstation, a location in a computer’s memory, or even a packet of
data traveling through a network.

Network addresses are hierarchical. The more details included, the more specific the
address becomes and the easier it is to find.

Switches operating at Layer 3 are smarter than Layer 2 devices and incorporate
routing functions to actively calculate the best way to send a packet to its destination.
However, because Layer 3 Switches take the extra time to read more details of a
network address, they are sometimes much slower than Layer 2 Switches.

Layer 4 (The Transport Layer)

Layer 4 of the OSI Model coordinates communications between systems. Layer 4

identifies which application protocols (HTTP, SNTP, FTP, etc.) are included with each

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packet and uses this information to hand off the packet to the appropriate higher-
layer software. Layer 4 switches make packet forwarding decisions based not only on
the MAC address and IP address, but also on the application a packet belongs to.

Because Layer 4 devices enable you to establish priorities for network traffic based
on application, you can assign a high priority to packets belonging to vital in-house
applications with different forwarding rules for low-priority packets, such as generic
HTTP-based Internet traffic.

Layer 4 switches also provide an effective wire-speed security shield for your network.

1. Discuss how switches operates in layer 2, 3, 4.

2. Discuss the main function of Layer 4 in OSI Model.

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