SUMMARY SHEET

Database Management
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 Contents
1 Database Management System....................................................................................................4
1.1 Important Database Management System ............................................................................4
1.1.1 Oracle Database ...........................................................................................................4
1.1.2 MySQL .........................................................................................................................4
1.1.3 Microsoft SQL Server ....................................................................................................4
1.2 Fundamentals of Database ...................................................................................................4
1.3 Types of Database................................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Network Database ........................................................................................................5
1.3.2 Hierarchical Database ...................................................................................................5
1.3.3 Relational Database ......................................................................................................5
1.4 Components of a Database...................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Tables ..........................................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Queries ........................................................................................................................5
1.4.3 Forms ..........................................................................................................................5
1.4.4 Reports ........................................................................................................................6
1.5 Database Management System (DBMS) ................................................................................6
1.6 Architecture of DBMS...........................................................................................................6
1.6.1 Internal Level ...............................................................................................................6
1.6.2 Conceptual Level ..........................................................................................................6
1.6.3 External Level...............................................................................................................7
2 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS..........................................................................................7
3 Applications of DBMS ..................................................................................................................8
4 Data Model.................................................................................................................................8
4.1 Relation...............................................................................................................................8
4.2 Domain ...............................................................................................................................8
4.3 Entities................................................................................................................................9
4.4 Attributes............................................................................................................................9
4.5 Tuples .................................................................................................................................9
4.6 Constraints..........................................................................................................................9
4.7 Normalization......................................................................................................................9
4.8 Data Integrity ......................................................................................................................9
4.9 Data Modeling Notations .....................................................................................................9

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 4.10 Keys ....................................................................................................................................9
4.10.1 Types of Keys ...............................................................................................................9
5 Relational Database................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Database Languages .......................................................................................................... 10
5.1.1 Data Definition Language (DDL) ................................................................................... 10
5.1.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)............................................................................. 10
5.1.3 Data Control Language (DCL) ....................................................................................... 10
6 Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model) ..................................................................................... 10
6.1 Entity ................................................................................................................................ 11
6.2 Attributes.......................................................................................................................... 11
6.3 Entity Set........................................................................................................................... 11
6.4 Relationship ...................................................................................................................... 11
6.5 Symbol Used in ER Diagram ................................................................................................ 11

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 1 Database Management System
A database is a collection of logically related information in an organised way so that it can be
easily accessed, managed, and updated.

Some other operations can also be performed on database such as adding, updating, and
deleting data.

A database could be simple as a single text file with a list of names or it could be complex as a
large bunch of text files including some data.

1.1 Important Database Management System

1.1.1 Oracle Database
✓ Company: Developed and marketed by Oracle Corporation.
✓ Cost: Comes with a significant cost, especially for enterprise-level usage. It has different
licensing options based on usage and features.
✓ Scalability: It's known for its scalability and robustness, often used in large enterprises
and mission-critical applications.
✓ Features: Offers a wide range of features including advanced security, high availability,
and comprehensive data management capabilities.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL and PL/SQL (a procedural language extension to
SQL).
1.1.2 MySQL
✓ Company: Originally developed by MySQL AB, now owned by Oracle Corporation.
✓ Cost: Known for its open-source nature, which means it's free to use for most purposes.
However, there are commercial editions with additional features and support available.
✓ Scalability: It is scalable and widely used in web applications, from small projects to
large-scale systems.
✓ Features: It offers a good balance of features, performance, and ease of use. It's often
favored for web development and applications where cost is a concern.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL.
1.1.3 Microsoft SQL Server
✓ Company: Developed and marketed by Microsoft Corporation.
✓ Cost: Comes in different editions with varying costs, including a free edition (SQL Server
Express) with limited features and scalability.
✓ Scalability: Highly scalable and widely used in various industries, from small businesses
to large enterprises.
✓ Features: It provides a wide range of features including business intelligence, data
analysis, and integration with other Microsoft products like Excel and SharePoint.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL and T-SQL (Transact-SQL, Microsoft's
implementation of SQL with procedural extensions).

1.2 Fundamentals of Database

✓ Data: These are raw and unorganized facts that need to be processed such as digital
representation of text, numbers, graphical images, or sound, e.g. a student’s test score is
one piece of data.

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 ✓ Information: When data is processed, organized, structured, or presented in a given
context to make it useful or meaningful, it is called information, e.g. the class’s average
score is the information that can be concluded from the given data.

1.3 Types of Database

✓ Databases are of three types, namely as follows:
1.3.1 Network Database
✓ In this type of database, data is represented as collection of records and relationships
among data are represented as links.
1.3.2 Hierarchical Database
✓ In this type of database, data is organized in the form of tree with nodes.
1.3.3 Relational Database
✓ This database is also known as structured database in which data is stored in the form of
tables. Where, columns define the type of data stored in the table and rows define the
information about the data.

1.4 Components of a Database

✓ A database consists of several different components. Each component listed, is called an
object. Within the file, you can divide your data into separate storage containers called
tables view, add and update table data by using online forms; find and retrieve the data
that you want by using queries and analyses or print data in a specific layout by using
reports.
1.4.1 Tables
✓ These are the building blocks or relation of any relational database model where all the
actual data is defined and entered. Different types of operation are done on the tables
such as storing, filtering, retrieving and editing of data. Tables consist of cells at the
intersection of records (rows) and fields (columns), which are describe below.
1.4.1.1 Field
✓ It is an area (within the record) reserved for a specific piece of data. e.g. customer
number, customer name, street address, city, state, phone number, current address,
etc. Field of a table is also known as column.
1.4.1.2 Record
✓ It is the collection of data items of all the fields pertaining to one entity, i.e. a person,
company, transition, etc. Record of a table is also known as row or a tuple and the
number of records in a relation is called the cardinality of that relation.

1.4.2 Queries
✓ These are questions based on the data available in a database. A query consists of
specifications indicating which fields, records, and summaries a user wants to fetch from
a database. Queries allow you to extract data based on the criteria that you define.
1.4.3 Forms
✓ Although you can enter and modify data in datasheet view of tables but you neither
control the user’s action very well nor you can do much to facilitate the data -entry
process. To overcome this problem, forms are introduced. Like tables, forms can be
used to view and edit your data. However, forms are typically used to view the data in
an underlying table one record at a time. e.g. a user can create a data entry form that

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 looks exactly like a paper form. People generally prefer to enter data into a well -
designed form, rather than a table.
1.4.4 Reports
✓ When you want to print those records, which are fetched from your database, design a
report. Access even has a wizard to help produce mailing labels.

1.5 Database Management System (DBMS)

✓ A DBMS is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to retrieve data from a
database. It is an organized collection of data viewed as a whole, instead of a group of
separate unrelated files.
✓ The primary goal of DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and
efficient for user to store and retrieve database information, e.g. MySQL, Oracle, FoxPro,
dBASE, SyBase MS-Access. The purpose of database management system is to bridge the
gap between information and data.
✓ The basic processes that are supported by DBMS are as follows:
• Specification of data types, structures and constraints to be considered in an application.
• Storing the data.
• Manipulation of the database.
• Querying the database to retrieve desired information.
• Updating the content of the database.

1.6 Architecture of DBMS

✓ The architecture of DBMS is divided into three levels are as follows

1.6.1 Internal Level

✓ It is the lowest level of data abstraction that deals with the physical representation of
the database on the computer. It is also known as physical level. It defines how the data
are actually stored and organised on the storage medium.
1.6.2 Conceptual Level
✓ It is the overall view of the database and includes all the information that is going to be
represented in the database. It describes what type of data is stored in the database,
the relationship among the data without effecting to the physical level. It is also known
as logical level.
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 1.6.3 External Level
✓ This is the highest level of data abstraction which describes the interaction between the
user and the system. It permits the users to access data in a way that is customized
according to their needs, so that the same data can be seen by different users in
different ways, at the same time. It is also known as view level.

2 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS

There are following advantages of DBMS:

✓ Reduction in Data Redundancy – The duplication of data refers to data redundancy. DBMS
cannot make separate copies of the same data. All the data is kept in a place and different
applications refer to data from a centrally controlled system.
✓ Better Interaction with Users – In DBMS, the availability of up-to-date information improves
the data to be accessed or responded to as per user requests.
✓ Improvement in Data Security – DBMS can allow the means of access to the database
through authorized channels. To ensure security, DBMS provides security tools, i.e.
username and password.
✓ Maintenance of Data Integrity – Data integrity ensures that the data of the database is
accurate. In DBMS, data is centralized and used by many users at a time, so it is essential to
enforce integrity controls.
✓ Ease of Application Development – The application programmer needs to develop the
application programs according to the user’s needs. The other issues like concurrent access,
security, data integrity, etc. are handled by the database itself. This makes application
development an easier task.
✓ Backup and Recovery – The DBMS provides a backup and recovery subsystem that is
responsible for recovering data from hardware and software failures.

As there are many advantages, DBMS also has some minor disadvantages. These disadvantages
are listed here:

✓ Cost of Hardware and Software – A processor with high speed of data processing and
memory of large size is required to run the DBMS software. It means that you have to
upgrade the hardware used for file-based system. Similarly, database software is also very
costly.
✓ Complexity – The provision of the functionality that is expected from a good DBMS makes
the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software. Failure to understand the system can
lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an organization.
✓ Cost of Staff Training – Mostly DBMS are often complex systems so the training for user to
use the database is required. The organization has to pay a lot of amount for the training of
staff to run the DBMS.

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 ✓ Appointing Technical Staff – The trained technical persons such as database administrator,
application programmers, etc. are required to handle the database. You have to pay a lot of
amount to these persons. Therefore, the system cost increases.
✓ Database Failure – In most of the organisations, all data is integrated into a single database.
If database is corrupted due to power failure or it is corrupted on the storage media, then
our valuable data may be lost or whole system stops.

3 Applications of DBMS
Some applications of DBMS are as follows

✓ Banking – For customer information, accounts, loans and other banking transactions.
✓ Reservation – For reservation and schedule information.
✓ Universities – For student information, course registration, grades, etc.
✓ Credit Card Transaction – For purchase of credit cards and generation of monthly
statements.
✓ Telecommunication – For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bill, etc.
✓ Finance – For storing information about holdings, sales and purchase of financial statements.
✓ Sales – For customer, product and purchase information.

4 Data Model
A data model is a conceptual representation of the structure of data, describing how data is
organized, stored, and manipulated within a system or application. It serves as a blueprint for
designing databases, software applications, and information systems. Data models help ensure
that data is accurately and efficiently managed, retrieved, and analyzed.

Here are the key components and aspects of a data model:

4.1 Relation
✓ It is a table with columns and rows which represent is the data items and relationships
among them. Relation have three important properties a name, cardinality and a degree.
These properties help us to further define and describe relations.
• Name – The first property of a relation is its name, which is represented by the tide or
the entity identifier.
• Cardinality – The second property of a relation is its cardinality, which refers to the
number of tuples (rows) in a relation.
• Degree – The third property of a relation is its degree, which refers to the number of
attributes (columns) in each tuple.

4.2 Domain
✓ It is a collection of all possible values from which the values for a given column or an
attribute is drawn. A domain is said to be atomic if elements are considered to be
indivisible units.
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 4.3 Entities
✓ Entities represent real-world objects, concepts, or events that are relevant to the system
being modeled. Each entity typically corresponds to a table in a relational database and is
defined by its attributes.

4.4 Attributes
✓ Attributes are the properties or characteristics of entities. Each attribute of a table has a
distinct name.

4.5 Tuples
✓ The rows in a relation are also known as tuples. Each row or tuple has a set of permitted
values for each attribute.

4.6 Constraints
✓ Constraints define rules or conditions that must be satisfied by the data in a database to
maintain integrity and consistency. Common constraints include primary key constraints,
foreign key constraints, uniqueness constraints, and check constraints.

4.7 Normalization
✓ Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to minimize redundancy and
dependency, thereby improving data integrity and reducing anomalies. It involves breaking
down large tables into smaller, related tables and eliminating repeating groups of
attributes.

4.8 Data Integrity

✓ Data integrity ensures that data is accurate, consistent, and valid throughout its lifecycle
within a system. It encompasses aspects such as entity integrity, referential integrity, and
domain integrity, enforced through constraints, validations, and data validation rules.

4.9 Data Modeling Notations

✓ Data models are often represented graphically using standardized notations such as Entity-
Relationship Diagrams (ERD), Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams, or specific
notation systems like Crow's Foot notation or IDEF1X.

4.10 Keys
✓ Key is one of the important concepts of database. A key is defined as the column or set of
columns in a table that is used to identify either row of data in a table or establish
relationship with another table.
✓ It is also referred as super key, arranging the records either in ascending or descending
order.
✓ If a table has id, name, and address as the column names then each one is known as the
key for that table. The keys are also used to uniquely identify each record in the database
table.
4.10.1 Types of Keys
✓ There are mainly four types of keys which are described below:
4.10.1.1 Primary Key
✓ It is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify tuples within the
relation. It identifies unique records within a table. The primary key should be chosen
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 in such a way, i.e. its value must not be changed. There should not be duplicated in the
record of primary key. Primary key can be atomic or composite. The field chosen as
primary key, cannot accept null value.
4.10.1.2 Candidate Key
✓ The set of all attributes which can uniquely identify each tuple of a relation, are known
as candidate keys. Each table may have one or more candidate keys and one of them
will become the primary key. The candidate key of a relation is always a minimal key.
4.10.1.3 Alternate Key
✓ From the set of candidate keys after selecting one of the keys as primary key, all other
remaining keys are known as alternate keys.
4.10.1.4 Foreign Key
✓ It is a non-key attribute whose value is derived from the primary key of the same or
some another table. The relationship between two tables is established with the help
of foreign key. A table may have multiple foreign keys and each foreign key can have a
different referenced table. Foreign keys play an essential role in database design, when
tables are broken apart then foreign keys make it possible for them to be
reconstructed.

Let’s Discuss Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) and Entity - Relationship Model
(E-R Model)in detail.

5 Relational Database
In a relational database, data is stored in different tables with relationships to each other.
These tables communicate and share information, which facilitates data search ability,
organisation and reporting. In the case of relational database, a Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS) performs these tasks.

5.1 Database Languages

There are various types of database languages:

5.1.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)

✓ DDL is used to dene structure of your tables and other objects in database. In DBMS, it is
used to specify a database schema as a set of definitions.
5.1.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
✓ DML provides various commands used to access and manipulate data in existing database.
This manipulation involves inserting data into data base tables, retrieving existing data,
deleting data from existing tables and modifying existing data.
5.1.3 Data Control Language (DCL)
✓ DCL commands are used to assign security levels in database which involves multiple user
setups. They are used to grant defined role and access privileges to the users.

6 Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model)

It represents the entities contained in the database. It is a diagrammatically representation of
entities and relationship between them. It is also known as E-R diagram.
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 6.1 Entity
✓ It is an object that has its existence in the real world. It includes all those things about
which the data are collected. “Entities are represented in rectangles.” e.g. customer buys
goods, it means customer and goods are entities. ‘

6.2 Attributes
✓ It describes the characteristics or properties of entity. In tables, attributes are represented
by columns. Attributes are drawn in elliptical shapes (ovals), e.g. ITEM entity may contain
code and price.

6.3 Entity Set

✓ It is a set of entities of the same type that share that same properties or attributes, e.g.
Students is an entity set of all student entities in the database.
Entity set is of two types as follow
• Strong entity set – It has a primary key or can be easily distinguishable each attribute.
• Weak entity set – It does not possess sufficient attributes to form a primary key.

6.4 Relationship
✓ It is an association among several entities. A relationship describes how two or more
entities are related to each other. It is represented by diamond shape.
✓ Relationship can be divided into three parts
• One to one
• Many to one
• One to many

6.5 Symbol Used in ER Diagram

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