Element of Engineering

ENGG 111
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machineries

Bijendra Shrestha, D. Eng

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

5 February 2025
Surprise Test
1. A Steel bar is 900 mm long; its two ends are 40 mm and 30 mm in diameter
and the length of each rod is 200 mm. The middle portion of the bar is 15
mm in diameter and 500 mm long. If the bar is subjected to a tensile load of
15kN, find its total extension. Take E= 200 GN / m2
2. Draw the stress-strain curve of the ductile material.
3. Draw the free body diagram of:

B
A

30o 60o
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Dynamics

• Fundamental branch of physics and engineering that studies the behavior of fluids
(liquids and gases) both at rest and in motion.
• Fluid Mechanics has three main branches:
1. Fluid Statics: It studies the behavior of fluids at rest.
2. Fluid Kinematics : It studies the behavior of fluids in motion but with no force
acting on them or without considering the forces that cause such motion.
3. Fluid dynamics: It studies fluids in motion considering all the forces acting on
them.
Fluid
• A fluid is a substance that does not have fixed shape and deforms continuously under the application of shear
stress or external force.
• In physics, fluids are defined as a materials that cannot resist tangential (shearing) forces and exhibit continuous
deformation when subjected to such forces.
• Fluid category includes – Liquid or Gas Phase
• Solids: Stress is Proportional to Strain
• Eg: Imagine pressing a rubber block with a shear force.
• It will deform to a certain angle and then stop, maintaining that shape unless the force changes.
• Fluids: Stress is Proportional to Strain Rate.
• Stress does not cause a fixed deformation but instead leads to continuous motion (flow).
• Strain rate measures how fast the shape is changing.
• Eg. If you apply a shear force to honey, it will continues to flow as long as the force is present. Unlike a solid,
it does not maintain a fixed shape.
 Summary: Definition of fluids

•Fluid has no definite shape

•It does not have resistance against any attempt to change its shape
•It is unable to retain an unsupported shape
•It is the substance that changes its shape as well as direction
uniformly whenever an external force is applied on it.
•Liquids, gases, dispersed solids and vapors, individually and
collectively, are called fluids.
Application of fluid mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is integral to various fields, influencing the design, efficiency, and
safety of numerous systems.
• Aerospace engineering (Aerodynamic design)
• Civil Engineering (Water Management)
Designing water supply and drainage systems
Flood control structures
Hydraulic infrastructure
Engineers analyze fluid flow in rivers and pipelines to ensure efficient water management
• Mechanical Engineering
 Hydraulic systems (pumps, turbines, compressors) and
Automotive applications – Knowledge of fluid flow helps in designing vehicles that move
efficiently through air, enhancing speed and safety while reducing fuel consumption.
No slip condition in fluid mechanics
• The no-slip condition is a fundamental concept in
fluid mechanics that describes the behavior of
viscous fluids at solid boundaries.
Definition:
• The no-slip condition states that at the interface
between a viscous fluid and a solid boundary, the
fluid’s velocity is zero.
• This means that the fluid layer in direct contact with
the surface moves at the same velocity as the
surface itself.
• If the surface is stationary, the adjacent fluid layer
also has a zero velocity.
• In both laminar and turbulent flows, the highest fluid velocity
occurs at the center of the pipe. The velocity decreases towards
the boundaries due to viscous effects, with zero velocity at the
walls due to the no-slip condition. This behavior is critical for
understanding fluid dynamics in pipe systems and designing
efficient piping networks.
• Viscous effects create a gradient where fluid layers closer to wall
move slower than those at the center.
Classification of fluid
• According to behavior under the action of externally applied
pressure (forces): In this class, fluids have two categories:
1. Compressible fluids: fluids which are dependent on temperature
and pressure i.e. volume and density of these fluids change with
pressure and temperature. Gases are compressible fluids.

2. Incompressible fluids: fluids which are independent of

temperature and pressure i.e. volume and density of these fluids do
not change with pressure and temperature. Liquids are
incompressible fluids.
• When compressible fluid is compressed,
its volume decreases, and its density
increases.
• Behavior is evident in gases, where there is
considerable space between molecules,
allowing for significant changes in density
under varying conditions.

• Incompressible fluids exhibits negligible

changes in density when subjected to
pressure change.
• The volume of an incompressible fluid
remains constant even under significant
pressure.
Mach Number (m)
• The Mach number is a dimensionless quantity in fluid dynamics that
represents the ratio of the local flow velocity to the local speed of
sound in a fluid.
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
Mach No. =
𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

• Mach number<0.3, compressibility effect is ignored.

• Subsonic: m<1
• Supersonic: m>1
• Sonic: m=1
According to the effect produced by the action of a shear stress.
1. Newtonian Fluid
2. Non-Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian Fluids: Fluids that obey Newton's law of viscosity are called Newtonian
fluids.
• Newton’s law of viscosity defines the relationship between the shear stress and shear rate
of a fluid subjected to mechanical stress. It states that the ratio of shear stress to shear
rate is a constant, for a given temperature and pressure, and is defined as the viscosity or
coefficient of viscosity.
• Characterized by a constant viscosity that does not change with the rate of shear
deformation.
• Water – Water maintain constant viscosity regardless of the shear rate applied.
• Air – viscosity of air remain relatively constant under normal conditions
• Mineral oil – often used in machinery and lubrication
Newton's law of viscosity describes the relationship between shear stress and shear rate
in a fluid.
It states that the shear stress τ acting on a fluid layer is directly proportional to the
𝑑𝑢
velocity gradient between adjacent layers of fluid.
𝑑𝑦

Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
•τ= μ
𝑑𝑦
• where τ = shear stress,
• μ = viscosity of the fluid,
𝑑𝑢
• = shear rate, rate of strain, or velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦

Newtonian fluids are commonly used in various engineering applications where predictable flow
behavior is essential, such as in hydraulic systems, piping, and fluid transport.
• Non-Newtonian Fluids: fluids that
do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity are called non-Newtonian
fluids.
• Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow
Newton’s law and, thus, their
viscosity (ratio of shear stress to
shear rate) is not constant
• The viscosity is dependent on the
shear rate.
• e.g. toothpaste, jellies, slurries,
polymer solutions, blood,
suspensions of starch and sand, etc.
Viscosity
• Fundamental property of fluids that describes their resistance to flow.
• Viscosity arises from the intermolecular forces between particles in a fluid.
• These forces act like friction, causing layers within the fluid to resist sliding past
each other.
• As a result, more energy is required to make high-viscosity fluids flow
compared to low viscosity ones.
• Types of viscosity:
1. Dynamic viscosity
2. Kinematic viscosity
 Element of Engineering
ENGG 111
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machineries

Bijendra Shrestha, D. Eng

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

9 February 2025
Types of Flow
1. Uniform and Non-Uniform flow
2. Steady and unsteady flow
3. Laminar and Turbulent flows
4. Compressible and Incompressible flow
5. Ideal & Real flow
Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow
• Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
parameter (pressure, velocity, density, viscosity and temperature) at any
given time does not change with respect to space (i.e. length of
direction of flow).
Mathematically, for uniform flow,

Eg. Flow through a long straight pipe of uniform diameter, certain section of canals with
fixed geometry is considered as uniform flow.
 Non-uniform flow
Non-uniform flow is in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect
to space (i.e. length of direction of flow).
• Mathematically, for non-uniform flow,

Eg. Flow through a long straight pipe with varying cross section is considered as non-uniform
flow.
Open channels like rivers where water depth or speed changes along its course, etc.
Steady and Unsteady flow
• In steady flow, the velocity and other properties of the fluid (pressure,
density) at any given point do not change over time.
• However, the velocity may change from one location to another.
ⅆ𝑃
Example: ⅆ𝑡
=0
𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑧0

• Water flowing through a pipe at constant rate – if we open a tap and water
flows at constant speed without any change over time, it’s steady flow.
• River flow (in an undisturbed section) – if a river flows with a constant velocity
and depth, it is steady.
 Unsteady flow
• In unsteady flow, the velocity and other properties change with time at
a given point.
ⅆ𝑃
Example: ⅆ𝑡
≠0
𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑧0

• Opening or closing a water tap – when we turn the tap on, the flow
rate gradually increases, when we turn it off, it decreases.
• When a valve in a pipeline is suddenly closed, the pressure and
velocity change suddenly.
 Ideal fluid and Real Fluid
An ideal fluid is a hypothetical fluid that has the following characteristics:
• Incompressible: Its density remains constant regardless of pressure changes.
• No viscosity: It offers no internal resistance to motion (no friction between
layers).
• Irrotational: There is no turbulence or vortex formation.
• Non-conductive to heat: No heat transfer occurs within the fluid

A Fluid in which there is no friction i.e. Zero Viscosity.

Real Fluid
A real fluid is any actual fluid that exhibits viscosity and compressibility, meaning it
has internal friction and deforms under shear stress.
• Viscous: Real fluids resist motion due to internal friction.
• Compressible: In some cases (e.g., gases), density changes with pressure variations.
• May have turbulence: Can exhibit irregular and chaotic motion at high speeds.
• Heat Transfer Possible: Temperature gradients can cause heat exchange within the
fluid.
• Example: Water, air, oil, blood, honey

A Fluid in which there is friction i.e. positive Viscosity.

LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
• Laminar flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well-
defined paths or streamline and all the streamlines are straight and parallel.
Thus, the particles move in laminar or layer gliding smoothly over the adjacent
layer.
• Characterized by laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layers
• The fluid particles move in well-defined path and retain the same relative
position at successive cross section of the fluid passage.
• The laminar flow is also called streamlined/viscous flow
• Mostly occurs in smooth pipes with fluid having low flowrates & fluid having high
viscosity.
• Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a
zig-zag way. Due to the movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the
eddies formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss.
• Flow path are erratic and unpredictable.
• Individual fluid particles are subjected to fluctuating transverse velocity (s)
• Motion of fluid is eddying/ sinuous rather than rectilinear
• Random eddying motion is called turbulence.
• Mostly seen in river, atmosphere and fire extinguisher cylinder
For pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by non-
𝑉𝐷
dimensional number called Reynolds number
𝑣
(Re)

Where,
V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe
D = Diameter of pipe
𝑣 = Kinematic viscosity of fluid

Dimensions: Re is dimensionless number

• Reynolds number less than 2000 (laminar)

• More than 4000 (turbulent)
• Between 2000-4000 (laminar & turbulent)
Flow rate (Q) or Rate of Flow or Discharge
• Quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or channel.
• For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is
expressed as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second.
• For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of
fluid across the section.
3 Volume flow rate, Q=Av
• For liquid the units of Q are 𝑚 /s or lt/sec. Mass flow rate, M = ρQ
• For gases the units of Q are kgf/s or N/s Weight flow rate, W = γQ
Where:
Q = discharge in m3/sec or ft3/sec
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2
v = mean velocity of flow in m/sec or ft/sec
ρ = mass density of fluid in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3
γ = unit weight of fluid in N/m3 or lb/ft3
 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝜌𝑉
𝑚ሶ =
𝑡
Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which 𝑚ሶ =
𝜌𝐴𝑑
𝑡

𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe
V =Average velocity of fluid across the section.
Then,
Discharge (Q)= Cross sectional area of pipe (A) ×Average velocity of fluid across the section(V)
Q=A × V
Continuity Equation
• The continuity equation is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that expresses the
conservation of mass within a control volume.
• It states that the rate at which mass enters a system must equal the rate at which mass
leaves it.
• For a fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross- sections, the quantity of fluid per
second is constant.

Let 𝑉1 = Average velocity at cross-section 1-1

𝜌1 = Density at section 1-1
𝐴1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1
& 𝑉2 , 𝜌2 and 𝐴2 are corresponding values at section 2-2,
 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
Rate of flow at section 1-1 = 𝑉1 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑚ሶ =
𝜌𝑉
𝑡
Rate of flow at section 2-2 = 𝑉2 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝜌𝐴𝑑
𝑚ሶ = 𝑡

𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
• According to law of conservation of mass,
Rate of flow at section 1-1= Rate of flow at section 2-2
𝑉1 𝜌1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝜌2 𝐴2
Above equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids
and is called continuity equation.
If the fluid is incompressible, then
𝜌1 = 𝜌2
, the continuity equation reduces to 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
• The use of continuity equation principle is to determine the velocities in
pipe coming from junction,
Total mass flow into junction=Total mass flow out of the junction

• When the flow is incompressible (e.g. if it is water),

𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 + 𝐴3 𝑉3
• A pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as shown in figure
below. The pipe has diameter of 45 cm at A, 30 cm at B, 20 cm at
C and 15 cm at D. Determine the discharge at A if the velocity at
A is 2 m/s. Also determine the velocities at B and D, if the velocity
at C is 4 m/s.

QA = AA* VA

QA = Q B = Q D + Q C
• Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes through
a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8 m in
diameter and carries one-third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE
is 2.5 m/s Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in
CD and the diameter of CE.
• Volume flow rate through point AB QAB = AAB*VAB

• The same fluid flows through the pipe BC VBC = QBC / ABC
• Flow rate through branch CD. QCD= 1/3rd of flow through AB

• Flow rate through branch CE QCE= QAB- QBC

 Element of Engineering
ENGG 111
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machineries

Bijendra Shrestha, D. Eng

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

15 February 2025
Types of flow lines
1. Pathline
2. Streamline
3. Streakline

Pathline
• The path or trajectory, traced out by an identified fluid particle during its flow.
• It is the actual path followed by a single fluid particle over time.
• A path defined by a balloon floating in the air is a pathline.
• A single leaf as it is floats down the river, if we trace the exact route it takes over time,
from where it starts to where it goes – this route is the pathline.
 Streamline
• It is an imaginary line drawn in the flow field such that the tangent drawn at any point on
this line represents the direction of velocity vector of the fluid particle at that point.
• A line that show the direction of fluid flow at a specific instant.
Velocity

Here,
• Velocity is tangent to the streamline.
• No flow can across a streamline.
 Streakline
• Succession of marked particles that originated from a particular point in the flow.
• The line joining fluid particles that once passed through the same fixed point in space.
• Imagine you drop a handful of ink at one spot in the water and watch them spread over
time.
• The trail they form is the streakline.
• The line formed by all fluid particles that have passed through a specific point.
Pathline, Streamline, Streakline
• Steady - same (pathline = streamline = streakline)
• Unsteady – not same
Bernoulli’s Principle
• Fundamental concept in fluid dynamics that describes the relationship
between the pressure, velocity and elevation in a moving fluids (liquid or
gas).
• It states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in pressure or potential energy.
• This principle is based on the conservation of energy for ideal fluids, assuming
negligible viscosity and compressibility.
• the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid, comprising the energy
associated with fluid pressure, the gravitational potential energy of elevation,
and the kinetic energy of fluid motion, remains constant.
• For a steady flow of incompressible, ideal fluid the sum of the pressure energy
(P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential energy per unit
volume (ρgh) remain constant.
• i.e.
P+ ρv2/2 + ρgh = constant
where P= pressure,

where p is pressure, v is velocity, h is height (elevation), and ρ is density

KE/ Volume = 1/2mv2/V = 1/2v2(m/V) = 1/2ρv2

PE/Volume = mgh/V = (m/V)gh = ρgh
 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Pressure energy per unit weight+ Kinetic energy per

unit weight+ Potential Energy per unit weight= Total • When a fluid is at rest. This means v1=v2=0.
Energy per unit weight
2 • P1-P2= ρg(h2-h1)
𝑃 𝑣
+ + ℎ = constant • When the pipe is horizontal.h1=h2.This means
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃
= pressure head there is no Potential energy by the virtue of
𝜌𝑔
𝑣2 height.
= velocity head
2𝑔 • P+(1/2) ρ v2 = constant.
ℎ = potential head
45
A horizontal water pipe of diameter 15 cm converges to diameter 7.5 cm. If the
pressures at two sections are 400 kPa and 150 kPa respectively, calculate the flow rate
of water.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
A 2m long pipeline tapers uniformly from 6 cm diameter to 18 cm diameter at its upper end.
The pipe centre line slopes upwards at an angle of 30 to the horizontal and the flow
direction is from smaller to bigger cross section. If the pressure gauges installed at the lower
and upper ends of the pipeline read 150 kPa and 180 kPa respectively, determine the flow
rate and fluid pressure at the mid length of the pipeline. Assume no energy losses.
Turbomachine
• “Turbo” : Greek word means “Spin” ; Machine : Energy converter to a more stable
usable form.
• Turbomachine : Machine (with rotating parts) – Fluid interaction for conversion of one
form of energy to the other.
• Example: Water or steam turbines, fans, blowers, pumps, compressors, wind mills, etc.
 Turbomachine
• A turbomachine is a device that exchange energy with a fluid using
continuously flowing fluid and rotating blades.
• In other words, A turbomachine is a device where mechanical energy in the
form of shaft work, is transferred either to or from a continuously flowing
fluid by the dynamic action of rotating blade rows.
• If the device extracts energy from the fluid it is generally called turbine.
• If the device delivers energy to the fluid it is called compressor, fan, blower
or pump depending on the fluid used and the magnitude of the change in
pressure that results
Turbomachine types – based on fluid machine interaction
1. Open turbo-machines
• The extent of fluid-machine interaction is infinite.
• The working fluid is not confined within a casing and is exposed to the
surrounding environment.
• E.g. propellers, windmills
2. Closed turbo-machines
• The extent of fluid machine interaction is finite.
• The working fluid is fully enclosed within a casing, guiding the fluid through a
controlled path over the rotor blades.
• E.g. pumps, turbines, compressors
Hydropower
• Power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed
for useful purposes.
Classification of hydropower,
according to capacity
• Large (> 100 MW)
• Medium (10 –100 MW)
• Small (1 MW–10 MW)
• Mini (100 –1 MW)
• Micro (5 –100 kW)
• Pico (< 5 kW)
Hydropower for electrical energy - Energy conversion:
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Mechanical energy
Electrical energy
Hydraulic Turbines
• Turbo-machines which uses the energy of flowing water present in the form
of pressure/kinetic energy and converts into mechanical energy which is in
the form of rotation of runner
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine
 Hydraulic Pumps
• A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts mechanical
power into hydraulic energy.
• Pump increases the mechanical energy of the fluid.
• Work has to be done on the pump to enable it to impart energy to
fluid.
• In most of the cases the pump is used for raising fluids from a lower
level to higher level, which is possible by creating low pressure at
inlet/suction end and a high pressure at outlet/delivery end.
• When a hydraulic pump operates, it performs two functions.
• First, its mechanical action creates a vaccum at the pump inlet which
allows atmospheric pressure to force liquid from the reservoir into
the inlet line to the pump.
• Second, its mechanical action delivers this liquid to the pump outlet
and forces it into the hydraulic system.
 HydraulicPumps
Classification based on displacement:
 Positive displacement pump and non-positive displacement
pump

Classification based on delivery

 Constant delivery pumps and variable delivery pump

Classification based on motion

 Reciprocating pump and Rotary pump
Positive Displacement Pumps
• Description: These pumps move a fixed amount of fluid per cycle or revolution, regardless of the
resistance to flow (i.e., pressure). They trap a specific volume of fluid and force it through the
outlet.
• Flow Rate: Nearly constant flow rate regardless of system pressure.
• Efficiency: High efficiency and capable of producing very high pressures.
• Applications: Used in hydraulic systems requiring precise control of fluid flow and pressure, such as
in heavy machinery, hydraulic presses, and industrial hydraulic circuits.
• Examples:
• Gear Pumps (External and Internal)
• Vane Pumps (Fixed and Variable)
• Piston Pumps (Axial and Radial Piston)
• Screw Pumps
• Advantages: High pressure capability, consistent flow, and good efficiency.
• Disadvantages: More complex design and potentially higher maintenance.
Non-Positive Displacement Pumps
• Description: These pumps impart velocity to the fluid, converting kinetic energy to pressure. The
flow rate varies with changes in system pressure.
• Flow Rate: Varies with system resistance (i.e., pressure), leading to lower efficiency in maintaining
consistent flow.
• Efficiency: Generally lower efficiency compared to positive displacement pumps.
• Applications: Used in applications where high flow rates at low pressures are needed, such as in
cooling systems, water circulation, and low-pressure fluid transfer.
• Examples:
• Centrifugal Pumps
• Axial Flow Pumps
• Advantages: Simple design, lower cost, and easier maintenance.
• Disadvantages: Inconsistent flow with pressure changes and limited to lower pressure applications.
Pump Arrangement
 Best of luck for your
Internal
and
End Semester Examination