You already know that three-fourth of the WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER

earth’s surface is covered with water, but only CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. This Given the abundance and renewability of
freshwater is mainly obtained from surface water, it is difficult to imagine that we may
run off and ground water that is continually suffer from water scarcity. The moment we
being renewed and recharged through the speak of water shortages, we immediately
hydrological cycle. All water moves within the associate it with regions having low rainfall
hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a or those that are drought prone. We
renewable resource. instantaneously visualise the deserts of
You might wonder that if three-fourth of Rajasthan and women balancing many
the world is covered with water and water is ‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting
a renewable resource, then how is it that and storing water and travelling long
countries and regions around the globe suffer distances to get water. True, the availability
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that of water resources varies over space and time,
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in mainly due to the variations in seasonal and
absolute water scarcity? annual precipitation, but water scarcity in

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most cases is caused by over-exploitation, consequent greater demands for water, and
excessive use and unequal access to water unequal access to it. A large population
among different social groups. requires more water not only for domestic
Where is then water scarcity likely to use but also to produce more food. Hence, to
occur? As you have read in the hydrological facilitate higher food-grain production, water
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly resources are being over-exploited to expand
from precipitation, sur face run off and irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
groundwater. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer
Is it possible that an area or region may of water. Now it is needed to revolutionise the
have ample water resources but is still facing agriculture through developing drought
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an You may have seen in many television
outcome of large and growing population and advertisements that most farmers have their

Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:

After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disrupted traffic.

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

the snow in a devastated village.

Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity

20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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own wells and tube-wells in their farms for available to meet the needs of the people, but,
irrigation to increase their produce. But have the area still suffers from water scarcity. This
you ever wondered what this could result in? scarcity may be due to bad quality of water.
That it may lead to falling groundwater levels, Lately, there has been a growing concern that
adversely affecting water availability and food even if there is ample water to meet the needs
security of the people. of the people, much of it may be polluted by
Post-independent India witnessed domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture,
creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large thus, making it hazardous for human use.
industrial houses are as commonplace as the Government of India has accorded highest
industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational priority to improve the quality of life and
Corporations). The ever-increasing number of enhance ease of living of people especially those
industries has made matters worse by exerting living in rual areas by announcing the Jal
pressure on existing freshwater resources. Jeevan Mission (JJM). The Goal of JJM is to
Industries, apart from being heavy users of enable every rural household get assured
water, also require power to run them. Much supply of potable piped water at a service level
of this energy comes from hydroelectric power. of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on
Moreover, multiplying urban centres with long-term basis by ensuring functionality of
large and dense populations and urban the tap water connections. (Source: Economic
lifestyles have not only added to water and Survey 2020–21, p.357)
energy requirements but have further You may have already realised that the need
aggravated the problem. If you look into the of the hour is to conserve and manage our
housing societies or colonies in the cities, you water resources, to safeguard ourselves from
would find that most of these have their own health hazards, to ensure food security,
groundwater pumping devices to meet their continuation of our livelihoods and productive
water needs. Not surprisingly, we find that activities and also to prevent degradation of our
fragile water resources are being over- natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and
exploited and have caused their depletion in mismanagement of water resources will
several of these cities. impoverish this resource and cause ecological
crisis that may have profound impact on
our lives.
Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) is being
implemented in 8220 water stressed Gram
Panchayats of 229 administrative blocks/ From your everyday experiences, write a short
talukas in 80 districts of seven states, viz. proposal on how you can conserve water.
Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and MULTI- PURPOSE RIVER P ROJECTS AND
Uttar Pradesh. The selected States account INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
for about 37 per cent of the total number
of water— stressed (over-exploited, critical But, how do we conserve and manage water?
and semi-critical) blocks in India. One of Archaeological and historical records show
the key aspects of Atal Jal is to bring in that from ancient times we have been
behavioural changes in the community, constructing sophisticated hydraulic
from the prevailing attitude of structures like dams built of stone rubble,
consumption to conservation and smart reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals
water management. for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have
continued this tradition in modern India by
Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Jal Shakti,
building dams in most of our river basins.
Government of India 2022–23

So far we have focused on the quantitative Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider • In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura
another situation where water is sufficiently near Allahabad had sophisticated water
WATER RESOURCES 21

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 harvesting system channelling the flood Multi-purpose projects, launched after
water of the river Ganga. Independence with their integrated water
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, resources management approach, were thought
dams, lakes and irrigation systems were of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
extensively built. development and progress, overcoming the
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works
have also been found in Kalinga, A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
(Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
(Maharashtra), etc. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure. Most dams have a section called a
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the
spillway or weir over which or through which
largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
it is intended that water will flow either
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, intermittently or continuously. Dams are
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for classified according to structure, intended
supplying water to Siri Fort area. purpose or height. Based on structure and
Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997. the materials used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
dams, with several subtypes. According to
the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.

handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru

proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of
modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the
village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy.

Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam

Find out more about any one traditional
What are dams and how do they help us method of building dams and irrigation works.
in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and
rainwater that could be used later to irrigate We have sown the crops in Asar
agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra
just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
water supply for domestic and industrial Floods have swollen the Damodar
uses, flood control, recreation, inland The sailing boats cannot sail
navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are
Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet
now referred to as multi-purpose projects
where the many uses of the impounded water Reduce the floods a little
are integrated with one another. For example, Bhadu will come a year later
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra –
Nangal project water is being used both for Let the boats sail on your surface
hydel power production and irrigation. (This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar valley
Similarly, the Hirakud project in the region narrates the troubles faced by people
Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of owing to the flooding of Damodar river known
as the river of sorrow.)
water with flood control.

22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 In recent years, multi-purpose projects
and large dams have come under great Collect information about floods occurred in
scrutiny and opposition for a variety of different parts of the country due to heavy
reasons. Regulating and damming of rivers rainfall in recent times.
affect their natural flow causing poor sediment
flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom These floods have not only devastated life
of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream and property but also caused extensive soil
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the flood
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser,
difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially further adding on to the problem of land
for spawning. The reservoirs that are created degradation. It was also observed that the multi-
on the floodplains also submerge the existing purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused
vegetation and soil leading to its water-borne diseases and pests and pollution
decomposition over a period of time. resulting from excessive use of water.
Irrigation has also changed the cropping
pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
to water intensive and commercial crops. This
has great ecological consequences like
Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over
salinisation of the soil.
the Narmada River in Gujarat. This is one
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
of the largest water resource projects of
has been started which ensures access to some
India covering four states—Maharashtra,
means to protective irrigation for all agricultural
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
farms in the country, thus bringing much
The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the
desired rural prosperity. Some of the broad
requirement of water in drought-prone and
objectives of this programme are to enhance
desert areas. Sardar Sarovar Project will
the physical access of water on the farm and
provide irrigation facilities to 18.45 lakh
expand cultivable area under assured
hectare of land, covering 3112 villages in
irrigation (har khet ko pani), improve on-farm
15 districts of Gujarat. It will also irrigate
water use efficiency to reduce wastage and
2,46,000 hectare of land in the strategic
increase availability both in duration and
desert districts of Barmer and Jalore in
extent, irrigation and other water saving
Rajasthan and 37,500 hectare in the tribal
technologies (per drop more crop) and
hilly tract of Maharashtra through lift.
introduce sustainable water conservation
About 75 per cent of the command area in
practices, etc.
Gujarat is drought prone while entire
command in Rajasthan is drought prone.
Assured water supply will soon make this
area drought proof. Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari
dispute is due to the objections raised by
Source: Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd.
Kar nataka and Andhra Pradesh
https://www.sardarsarovardam.org/
governments? It is regarding the diversion
of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra
government for a multipurpose project. This
Ironically, the dams that were constructed would reduce downstream flow in their
to control floods have triggered floods due to states with adverse consequences for
sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the agriculture and industry.
big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in
controlling floods at the time of excessive
rainfall. Make a list of inter-state water disputes.

WATER RESOURCES 23

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 India: Major Rivers and Dams

24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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R AINWATER H ARVESTING practised to store drinking water,
Many thought that given the disadvantages particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood plains
and rising resistance against the multi- of Bengal, people developed inundation
purpose projects, water harvesting system channels to irrigate their fields. In arid and
was a viable alternative, both socio- semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were
economically and environmentally. In converted into rain fed storage structures
ancient India, along with the sophisticated that allowed the water to stand and moisten
hydraulic structures, there existed an the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and
extraordinary tradition of water-harvesting ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
system. People had in-depth knowledge of In the semi-arid and arid regions of
rainfall regimes and soil types and developed Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi
wide ranging techniques to harvest and Barmer, almost all the houses
rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood traditionally had underground tanks or
water in keeping with the local ecological tankas for storing drinking water. The tanks
conditions and their water needs. In hill and could be as large as a big room; one
mountainous regions, people built diversion household in Phalodi had a tank that was
channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
Western Himalayas for agriculture. ‘Rooftop metres wide. The tankas were part of the well-
rainwater harvesting’ was commonly developed rooftop rainwater harvesting

Collect information about flood prone areas of the country

WATER RESOURCES 25

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system and were built inside the main house
or the courtyard. They were connected to the
sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
Rain falling on the rooftops would travel
down the pipe and was stored in these
underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain
was usually not collected as this would clean
the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater from
the subsequent showers was then collected.

Fig. 3.4
(a) Recharge through Hand Pump
The rainwater can be stored in the
tankas till the next rainfall making it an
extremely reliable source of drinking water
when all other sources are dried up,
particularly in the summers. Rainwater, or
palar pani
pani, as commonly referred to in these
parts, is considered the purest form of
natural water. Many houses constructed
underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to
beat the summer heat as it would keep the

(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell

• Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe
• Filtered using sand and bricks
• Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the above
• Excess water from the sump is taken to the well in the Kaza village, from which water is released
• Water from the well recharges the underground as and when required.
• Take water from the well (later)
Fig 3.5: Traditional method of rainwater
Fig 3.3: Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting harvesting
26 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 adapted here. Gendathur receives an annual
precipitation of 1,000 mm, and with 80 per
cent of collection efficiency and of about 10
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the
fillings, every house can collect and use about
most common practice in Shillong,
50,000 litres of water annually. From the 200
Meghalaya. It is interesting because
Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated houses, the net amount of rainwater harvested
at a distance of 55 km. from Shillong annually amounts to 1,00,000 litres.
receive the highest rainfall in the world,
yet the state capital Shillong faces acute
shortage of water. Nearly every
household in the city has a rooftop
rainwater harvesting structure. Nearly
15-25 per cent of the total water
requirement of the household comes
from rooftop water harvesting.

Find out other rainwater harvesting systems

existing in and around your locality.
Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns
and villages of the Thar. Rainwater that falls on
room cool.
the sloping roofs of houses is taken through a
Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the
pipe into an underground tanka (circular holes in
practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on
the ground). built in the main house or in the
the decline as plenty of water is available due
courtyard. The picture above shows water being
to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal, though
taken from a neighbour’s roof through a long pipe.
some houses still maintain the tankas since Here the neighbour’s rooftop has been used for
they do not like the taste of tap water. collection of rainwater. The picture shows a hole
Fortunately, in many parts of rural and urban through which rainwater flows down into an
India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being underground tanka.
successfully adapted to store and conserve
water. In Gendathur, a remote backward Fig. 3.6
village in Mysuru, Karnataka, villagers have
installed, in their household’s rooftop,
rainwater harvesting system to meet their
water needs. Nearly 200 households have Tamil Nadu is the first state in India
installed this system and the village has earned which has made rooftop rainwater
the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater. harvesting structure compulsory to all
the houses across the state. There are
See Fig. 3.6 for a better understanding of the
legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
rooftop rainwater harvesting system which is

WATER RESOURCES 27

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 BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream
and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent.
About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system,
gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally
reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.

Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs

on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.

Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert Picture 4: If the pipes pass a road,
water to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again they are taken high above the land.
made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of
water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.

Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.

Fig 3.7

1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.

2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.

28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering from water scarcity’ or ‘not suffering from water scarcity’.
(a) Region with high annual rainfall.
(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.
(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer from
water scarcity.
(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.
(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite them
correctly.
(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the Indira
Gandhi Canal.

2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.

3 . Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods are being carried out to conserve and store water.

WATER RESOURCES 29

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