SUMMER INTERNSHIP on

VLSI

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SAI GANAPATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Affiliated to JNTU – GV. Approved by AICTE, New Delhi.
GIDIJALA(V), ANANDAPURAM(M), VISAKHAPATNAM, AP – 531173
(2024-2025)
 VLSI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to our honourable
Principal Mr. B. BAPIRAJU , Sai Ganapati Engineering College for his refining comments and Critical
judgments of industrial internship.

I have great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude to our Head of the Department Mr. G.
Phani Kumar, M. Tech, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sai Ganapati
Engineering College for providing all necessary Support for successful completion of our internship.

I would like to express my special thanks to my trainer Mr. V. Sharath Chandra, who helped me to
learn so many new things, Knowledge and Hands-on Experience.

I thank all the staff members of our department & the college administration who helped me in carrying
out this training successfully

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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ABSTRACT

VLSI (Very-Large-Scale Integration) design is a crucial field in modern electronics, enabling the
integration of millions or even billions of transistors onto a single semiconductor chip. This technology
has revolutionized the design and fabrication of integrated circuits (ICs), leading to advancements in
computing, telecommunications, consumer electronics, and a wide range of other applications. The
VLSI design process involves several stages, including system specification, architectural design, logic
design, circuit design, physical design, and verification. Key challenges in VLSI design include
managing power consumption, minimizing area, ensuring signal integrity, and meeting performance
requirements within the constraints of modern fabrication technologies. Recent innovations in design
tools, such as Electronic Design Automation (EDA) software, and techniques such as hardware
description languages (HDLs), are essential for automating and optimizing the design process.
Furthermore, emerging trends like FinFET technology, 3D ICs, and AI-assisted design are pushing the
boundaries of what is possible in terms of performance, scalability, and energy efficiency. This paper
reviews the principles, methodologies, challenges, and future directions of VLSI design, emphasizing
its importance in the ongoing miniaturization and enhancement of electronic systems.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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PREFACE

Summer Internship constitutes an integral part of engineering studies. The internship gives an
opportunity to the students to express themselves to the industrial environment which is quite different
from the teaching classroom. The internship enables the student to work in the future. It enables the
student to undergo those experiences which help them later when they join an organization.

Industrial Internship is a major part of course. It is period in which we are introduced to the industrial
environment or in other words we can say that industrial training is provided for the familiarization
with the industrial environment, with the advancement in computer technologies and increased
automation in the industries for increasing their production. In organization where Making Things
Right in the first instance is the driving motto, perfection and accuracy are inevitable.

It provides a linkage between the student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach
to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization.
The objective of internship is to raise the level of performance on one or more of its aspects and this
may be achieved by providing new knowledge and information relevant to a job.

During this period, the students get the real, first-hand experience for working in the actual
environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies
is put to test here. It covers all the remains uncovered in the classroom i.e. without it our studies remain
ineffective and incomplete. Apart from this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest
technology, which immensely helps them in building their carrier.

I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my sphere of
knowledge to a great extent. I was entrusted with a real-life project, working on which had finally
made me step into the ongoing technology and gradually become a part of it. And all the credit goes
to IIDT | Blackbucks for providing me the opportunity and facility for the making of this dissertation.
I availed this instance in a very satisfactory manner and think it will be very beneficial for me in
building my future.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 INDEX
S.no. Contents PAGE
No.

1 Understanding the Concept of VLSI and Its Role in Modern 1

Electronics

2 Review of Basic Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra 3

3 Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) 6

4 Digital Logic Design Fundamentals 9

5 Introduction to Physical Design 14

6 ASIC Design Flow 16

7 Floor planning in ASIC Design 18

8 Understanding CMOS Technology 20

9 Project : Design 4x4 Multiplier using Verilog HDL code 22

10 Conclusion 26
 VLSI

Understanding the Concept of VLSI and Its Role in Modern Electronics

Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) is the process of integrating thousands to millions of transistors
onto a single silicon chip. This technology has revolutionized the electronics industry, enabling the
creation of compact, high-performance, and cost-effective electronic devices. VLSI technology is the
cornerstone of modern digital systems, from simple consumer electronics to complex computing and
communication systems.

The development of VLSI began in the late 1970s and early 1980s, driven by the need for more
powerful and efficient electronic devices. Before VLSI, electronic circuits were built using discrete
components, which were bulky, less reliable, and consumed more power. VLSI allowed for the
miniaturization of these components, drastically improving the performance and reliability of
electronic systems while reducing their size and power consumption.

In modern electronics, VLSI technology is used in the design and fabrication of integrated circuits
(ICs) such as microprocessors, memory chips, and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
Microprocessors, which are the brains of computers, rely on VLSI technology to pack billions of
transistors into a small chip, enabling complex computations at high speeds. Memory chips, which
store data, also benefit from VLSI by offering large storage capacities in compact forms.

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The impact of VLSI extends beyond computing. In communication systems, VLSI enables the
development of high-speed data transmission and reception equipment, facilitating the growth of the
internet and mobile communications. In consumer electronics, VLSI is behind the development of
smartphones, tablets, and smart appliances, integrating various functionalities into single, user-friendly
devices.

The design and manufacturing process of VLSI involves several stages, including system specification,
design, verification, fabrication, and testing. Advanced tools and techniques, such as computer-aided
design (CAD) software, are used to create and optimize VLSI circuits. The fabrication process involves
photolithography, etching, doping, and deposition, carried out in cleanroom environments to ensure
precision and quality.

In summary, VLSI technology plays a crucial role in modern electronics by enabling the creation of
powerful, efficient, and compact electronic systems. Its applications span across various domains,
driving innovation and shaping the future of technology.

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Review of Basic Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra

Logic Gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits. They perform basic logical
functions that are essential for digital computation. The primary logic gates include AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. Each gate operates on one or more binary inputs to produce a single
binary output, based on a specific logical operation.

• AND Gate: Produces a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high (1). Otherwise, the output
is low (0).

• OR Gate: Produces a high output (1) if at least one of its inputs is high (1). The output is low
(0) only if all inputs are low (0).

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• NOT Gate: Also known as an inverter, it produces the opposite value of its single input. If the
input is high (1), the output is low (0), and vice versa.

• NAND Gate: The output is low (0) only if all its inputs are high (1). Otherwise, the output is
high (1). It is the inverse of the AND gate.

• NOR Gate: The output is high (0) only if all its inputs are low (0). Otherwise, the output is
low (1). It is the inverse of the OR gate.

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• XOR Gate: Produces a high output (1) if an odd number of its inputs are high (1). If the number
of high inputs is even, the output is low (0).

• XNOR Gate: Produces a high output (1) if an even number of its inputs are high (1). If the
number of high inputs is odd, the output is low (0). It is the inverse of the XOR gate.

Boolean Algebra is the mathematical framework used to analyze and simplify digital circuits.
Developed by George Boole in the mid-19th century, Boolean algebra uses binary variables that take
on one of two possible values: true (1) or false (0). The primary operations in Boolean algebra are
AND, OR, and NOT, which correspond to the basic logic gates.

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Hardware Description Languages (HDLs)

Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) are specialized programming languages used to describe
the structure, behavior, and functionality of electronic circuits and systems. The most commonly used
HDLs are VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language) and Verilog. These languages allow
designers to model and simulate digital circuits at various levels of abstraction, from high-level
behavioral descriptions to low-level gate and switch representations.

LANGUAGE COMPARISON

VHDL was developed in the 1980s by the U.S. Department of Defense for the Very High-Speed
Integrated Circuits (VHSIC) program. It is a strongly typed, verbose language that supports concurrent
processing, making it suitable for describing complex digital systems. VHDL allows for the design of
synchronous and asynchronous circuits, providing constructs for describing sequential logic,
combinational logic, and state machines.

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Verilog, developed in the mid-1980s by Gateway Design Automation, is another widely used HDL.
Verilog is less verbose than VHDL and has a syntax similar to the C programming language, making
it easier for engineers with a software background to learn. Verilog supports a range of abstraction
levels, from behavioral modeling to gatelevel and switch-level modeling. It is commonly used in the
design and verification of digital circuits, including ASICs and FPGAs (Field-Programmable Gate
Arrays).

Both VHDL and Verilog enable designers to:

• Describe Circuit Behavior: Using high-level constructs, designers can describe how a circuit
should function without worrying about implementation details.

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• Simulate and Verify Designs: HDLs allow for the simulation of digital circuits to verify their
correctness before physical implementation. This helps identify and fix design errors early in the
development process.

• Synthesize to Hardware: HDL descriptions can be synthesized into gate-level netlists, which can
then be mapped to physical hardware components. Synthesis tools optimize the design for
performance, power consumption, and area.

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Digital Logic Design Fundamentals

Digital Logic Design is the process of creating digital circuits that perform specific functions using
logic gates and other fundamental components. It involves understanding and applying the principles
of digital logic to design combinational and sequential circuits that process binary information.

Combinational Logic Circuits are circuits where the output depends only on the current inputs. These
circuits do not have memory elements, and their behaviour can be described using truth tables, Boolean
expressions, and logic diagrams. Examples of combinational logic circuits include adders, subtractors,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders, and decoders.

• Adders: Circuits that perform binary addition. A half-adder adds two single-bit numbers,
producing a sum and a carry output. A full-adder adds three single-bit numbers (including a carry-
in), producing a sum and a carry-out.

HALF-ADDER

FULL-ADDER

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• Multiplexers (MUX): Devices that select one of several input signals and forward the selected
input to a single output line. The selection is controlled by additional inputs called select lines.

• Decoders: Circuits that convert binary information from n input lines to a maximum of 2𝑛 unique
output lines

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Sequential Logic Circuits are circuits where the output depends on both the current inputs and the
past history of inputs. These circuits include memory elements such as flip-flops and latches that store
binary information. Sequential logic circuits can be classified into synchronous and asynchronous
types.

• Flip-Flops: Basic memory elements used in sequential logic. Common types include SR (Set-
Reset), D (Data), JK, and T (Toggle) flip-flops. Flip-flops are edge-triggered, meaning they change
state on a specific edge of the clock signal.

D Flip-Flop

T Flip-Flop

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SR Flip-Flop

JK Flip-Flop

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• Registers: Collections of flip-flops used to store multi-bit binary data. Registers are used in
various digital systems for temporary data storage, data transfer, and data manipulation.
• Counters: Sequential circuits that count the number of clock pulses. Counters can be designed to
count in binary, decimal, or other number systems, and can be classified as up-counters, down-
counters, or up/down counters.

State Machines: Sequential circuits that transition through a series of states based on input signals and
clock pulses. State machines are used to design complex control systems, with two main types being
Mealy machines (output depends on both state and input) and Moore machines (output depends only
on the state).

Mealy machines

Moore machines

Karnaugh Maps (K-maps): A visual method used to simplify Boolean expressions and minimize the
number of logic gates needed in a circuit. K-maps help identify common patterns and reduce the
complexity of digital designs.

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Introduction to Physical Design

Physical Design in VLSI refers to the process of converting a high-level circuit description into a
physical layout that can be manufactured on a silicon wafer. It involves several crucial steps to ensure
that the final chip meets performance, power, and area (PPA) requirements. The main stages of physical
design include floorplanning, placement, clock tree synthesis, routing, and verification.

• Floorplanning: This step involves dividing the chip area into blocks or regions where various
components (e.g., logic gates, memory cells) will be placed. Effective floorplanning reduces wire
lengths, minimizes signal delay, and optimizes the overall chip performance. It sets the foundation
for subsequent design stages by defining the layout's spatial organization.

• Placement: After floorplanning, individual standard cells and macro blocks are placed within the
predefined regions. The goal is to position these elements in a way that optimizes the chip's
performance and area while ensuring signal integrity and minimizing power consumption.
Placement tools use algorithms to find the best possible arrangement of cells.

• Clock Tree Synthesis (CTS): This stage involves designing a clock distribution network that
delivers the clock signal to all sequential elements (e.g., flip-flops) with minimal skew and latency.
A well-designed clock tree ensures synchronous operation across the chip and minimizes timing
issues.

• Routing: Once placement and CTS are complete, the next step is to connect the various
components with metal wires. Routing is performed in multiple stages, including global routing
(defining the overall paths) and detailed routing (fine-tuning the connections). The routing process
aims to avoid congestion, minimize delays, and ensure reliable signal transmission.

• Verification: The final step in physical design is to verify that the layout meets all design
specifications and constraints. This involves running various checks, such as design rule checking
(DRC) to ensure compliance with manufacturing rules, layout versus schematic (LVS) to confirm
the layout matches the circuit design, and timing analysis to verify that the circuit meets
performance requirements.

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VLSI Physical Design Flow

Physical design is a critical stage in the VLSI design flow, as it directly impacts the manufacturability
and performance of the final chip. Tools like EDA (Electronic Design Automation) software play a
vital role in automating and optimizing the physical design process.

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ASIC Design Flow

The ASIC (Application-Specific Integrated Circuit) design flow is a structured methodology for
designing custom integrated circuits tailored to specific applications. The process involves several
stages, each requiring specialized tools and techniques to ensure the final ASIC meets the desired
specifications.

Specification: This initial phase involves defining the requirements and functionality of the ASIC.
Detailed specifications include performance metrics, power consumption, area constraints, and
interface requirements. Clear specifications guide the entire design process.

Design Entry: In this phase, the design is captured using Hardware Description Languages (HDLs)
like Verilog or VHDL. The HDL code describes the functionality and behavior of the ASIC at various
abstraction levels, from high-level algorithms to gate-level implementations.

Functional Verification: Before proceeding to synthesis, the HDL design undergoes thorough
simulation to verify its correctness. Simulation tools are used to test the design under various
conditions and ensure it meets the specified functionality. This step helps identify and correct errors
early in the design process.

Synthesis: The verified HDL code is synthesized into a gate-level netlist, which consists of logic gates
and interconnections. Synthesis tools optimize the design for performance, power, and area,
transforming the high-level description into a format suitable for physical implementation.

Physical Design: This stage involves converting the gate-level netlist into a physical layout. The
physical design process includes floorplanning, placement, clock tree synthesis, routing, and
verification, as detailed in the previous section.

Design for Testability (DFT): To ensure the manufacturability of the ASIC, DFT techniques are
integrated into the design. These techniques include adding test structures like scan chains and built-
in selftest (BIST) circuits to facilitate testing of the final chip.

Fabrication: Once the physical design is complete and verified, the final layout is sent to a
semiconductor foundry for fabrication. The foundry manufactures the ASIC using advanced
lithography and semiconductor processes, producing silicon wafers that are then packaged into
individual chips.

Testing and Validation: The fabricated chips undergo rigorous testing to validate their functionality,
performance, and reliability. Testing ensures that the ASIC meets all specifications and is free of
manufacturing defects. Any issues identified are analyzed and corrected before mass production.

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ASIC Design Flow

The ASIC design flow is iterative, with feedback loops at various stages to refine and optimize the
design. This systematic approach ensures that the final ASIC meets the specific needs of the application
while achieving high performance, low power consumption, and cost efficiency.

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Floorplanning in ASIC Design

Floorplanning is a critical step in the physical design phase of ASIC design. It involves defining the
physical layout of the chip, including the placement of major functional blocks, I/O pads, and power
structures. Effective floorplanning is essential for optimizing performance, power consumption, and
area, and it sets the stage for successful placement and routing.

• Objective of Floorplanning: The primary goal of floorplanning is to organize the chip's

components in a way that minimizes wire lengths, reduces signal delays, and ensures efficient use
of silicon area. A well-planned layout improves timing performance, power distribution, and
overall chip reliability.

• Macro and Standard Cell Placement: During floorplanning, large blocks known as macros (e.g.,
memory blocks, IP cores) are placed first, followed by the placement of standard cells (e.g., logic
gates, flip-flops). Macros are strategically placed to minimize interconnect lengths and avoid
congestion.

• Power Planning: Adequate power distribution is crucial for the reliable operation of the ASIC.
Floorplanning includes designing a robust power grid that delivers stable power to all parts of the
chip. Power rings and straps are used to distribute power and ground connections effectively.

• I/O Planning: The placement of I/O pads and interfaces is another important aspect of
floorplanning. I/O pads are positioned around the periphery of the chip to facilitate external
connections. The floorplan must ensure that signal paths to and from the I/O pads are optimized
for performance and minimal delay.

• Clock Planning: A well-structured clock distribution network is essential for synchronous

operation. Floorplanning involves planning the placement of clock sources and designing the clock
tree to minimize skew and ensure uniform clock distribution across the chip.

• Area Optimization: Floorplanning aims to optimize the use of silicon area, balancing the trade-
offs between performance, power, and manufacturability. This involves considering the aspect ratio
of the chip, managing routing congestion, and ensuring sufficient space for routing and vias.

• Iterative Refinement: Floorplanning is an iterative process, with multiple refinements and

optimizations. Designers use floorplanning tools to experiment with different layouts, analyze the
impact on performance and power, and make adjustments to achieve the best possible design.

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Effective floorplanning requires a deep understanding of the design's functional requirements,

constraints, and trade-offs. It sets the foundation for successful placement, routing, and ultimately, the
fabrication of a high-performance, reliable ASIC.

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Understanding CMOS Technology

CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technology is a widely used semiconductor
technology for constructing integrated circuits. It employs both NMOS (n-type metal-oxide-
semiconductor) and PMOS (p-type metal-oxide-semiconductor) transistors to achieve low power
consumption and high noise immunity. CMOS technology is the backbone of most modern digital
logic circuits, including microprocessors, memory chips, and various other digital and analog
applications.

1. Basic Principles: CMOS technology leverages the complementary characteristics of NMOS and
PMOS transistors. In a CMOS inverter, for example, the NMOS transistor pulls the output to
ground when the input is high, while the PMOS transistor pulls the output to the supply voltage
when the input is low. This complementary action ensures low static power consumption since only
one transistor conducts at a time.

2. Advantages of CMOS:
• Low Power Consumption: CMOS circuits consume power primarily during switching
transitions, making them highly efficient for battery-powered devices.
• High Noise Immunity: CMOS technology provides robust noise margins, ensuring reliable
operation in noisy environments.
• Scalability: CMOS transistors can be scaled down to smaller dimensions, enabling higher
transistor densities and more complex circuits on a single chip.

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3. CMOS Process Technology: The fabrication of CMOS transistors involves several steps,
including:
• Oxidation: Creating a thin layer of silicon dioxide on the silicon wafer.

• Photolithography: Patterning the silicon dioxide layer to define the regions for transistor
formation.
• Doping: Introducing impurities into specific regions to create p-type and n-type areas.

• Metal Deposition: Adding metal layers for interconnects and contacts.

4. CMOS Logic Gates: CMOS technology is used to construct basic logic gates, such as AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates. Each gate consists of a network of NMOS and PMOS
transistors arranged to perform the desired logical function.

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Project : Design 4x4 Multiplier using Verilog HDL code

Verilog HDL code:
// 4x4 Multiplier Verilog HDL code

module multiplier_4x4 (

input [3:0] A,

input [3:0] B,

output reg [7:0] P

);

always @* begin

P = 8'b00000000; // Initialize P to zero

// Perform multiplication

for (int i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1) begin

for (int j = 0; j < 4; j = j + 1) begin

if (A[i] && B[j])

P[i + j] = 1;

end

end

end

endmodule

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Testbench code:
// Test bench for 4x4 Multiplier

module tb_multiplier_4x4;

// Parameters and signals

reg [3:0] A, B;

wire [7:0] P;

// Clock generation

reg clk = 0;

reg reset = 0;

// Instantiate the multiplier

multiplier_4x4 uut (

.A(A),

.B(B),

.P(P)

);

// Initialize VCD dumping

initial begin

$dumpfile("dump.vcd"); // Specify the VCD file name

$dumpvars(0, tb_multiplier_4x4);

// Dump all variables in tb_multiplier_4x4 module

end

// Clock generation process

always #5 clk = ~clk;

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// Stimulus

initial begin

// Test case 1

A = 4'b0101;

B = 4'b0011;

#10;

// Test case 2

A = 4'b1111;

B = 4'b0001;

#10;

// Test case 3

A = 4'b1010;

B = 4'b1010;

#10;

// Add more test cases as needed

// End simulation

$finish;

end

endmodule

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EPWave Waveform:

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Conclusion:
The project's expected outcome is a fully functional 4x4 multiplier implemented in Verilog HDL,
capable of accurately computing the product of two 4-bit numbers. The project demonstrates
proficiency in digital design principles, multiplication algorithms, and practical FPGA-based
implementation. The anticipated results include validated RTL code and synthesis reports showing
efficient use of hardware resources and meeting specified performance criteria.

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