BJT AC Introduction
BJT AC Introduction
AC Analysis
I. THEORY OF OPERATION
In the previous experiment, we become familiar with the behavior of BJT device as a current
amplifier in the dc domain. We also recognized that the behavior of this device is dependent
upon the operation point, which is identified by 𝑣𝐶𝐸 and 𝑖𝑐 . In this experiment, we examine
BJT as an amplifier of small signals as well as an oscillator. Although we identified BJT as a
current amplifier, we can demonstrate that BJT can also be viewed as a voltage amplifier. The
gain of the amplifier, however, depends on the circuit arrangement. To understand this
principle, let us examine the circuit in Fig. 1.
Δ𝑣𝑒
𝐺= (1)
Δ𝑣𝑏
This gain can be shown to be near 1 for 𝛽 ≫ 1. Note that a change in the base voltage
results in a change in the current of the base, denoted by Δ𝐼𝑏 . Such a change causes a
change in 𝑖𝑐 of Δ𝑖𝑐 = 𝛽 Δ𝑖𝑏 and a change in the emitter current of Δ𝑖𝑒 = (1 + 𝛽)Δ𝑖𝑏 . So,
𝑣𝑏 + Δ𝑣𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏 (𝑖𝑏 + Δ𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽)(𝑖𝑏 + Δ𝑖𝑏 )
Since 𝑣𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏 (𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽)𝑖𝑏 ,
Δ𝑣𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏 (Δ𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽)Δ𝑖𝑏
Since 𝛽 ≫ 1, the first term can be ignored. Also. 𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽)Δ𝑖𝑏 = Δ𝑣𝑒 . Hence,
Δ𝑣𝑒
𝐺= ≈1 (2)
Δ𝑣𝑏
This amplifier has a gain of 1. Then, why use such an arrangement? The answer is in the
impedance that this arrangement presents to the input. Note that Δ𝑣𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏 (Δ𝐼𝑏 ) +
𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽)Δ𝑖𝑏
Δ𝑣𝑏
𝑅𝑖 = = 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽) ≈ 𝛽𝑅𝑒 (3)
Δ𝑖𝑏
Which implies that the input impedance of the device has gone from 𝑅𝑏 to 𝑅𝑏 +
𝑅𝑒 (1 + 𝛽) ≫ 𝑅𝑏 when 𝛽 ≫ 1and 𝑅𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒 are comparable. This implies that we can
realize a buffer stage not for the sake of amplification, but for the sake of isolating the
voltage source from the output. The output impedance of this arrangement can also be
found as
Δ𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑠
𝑅0 = = 𝑅𝑒 || (4)
Δ𝐼𝑒 𝛽
where 𝑅𝑠 is the source impedance (we used 𝑅𝑏 in the figure).
𝑅
Which implies that this arrangement is an inverting amplifier with the gain of − 𝑅𝑐 for
𝑒
𝛽 ≫ 1. This may suggest that we can have an unreasonably large gain based on values of
emitter and collector resistors. Caution must be exercised when using this arrangement.
Note that this is a small signal analysis. That means this result is valid as long as the output
voltage swing is not large enough to violate the small signal assumption. Furthermore,
the output swing cannot exceed 𝑉𝑐𝑐 . As note the previous experiment, BJT can be
considered to be a linear device over a pre-defined range of input and outputs. Exceeding
those ranges may lead to saturation and cutting off the transistor. Hence, an arbitrarily
large gain may not be possible and the system designed must take these facts into account
when selecting 𝑅𝑐 and 𝑅𝑒 .
In some scenarios, 𝑅𝑒 = 0. In that event, the gain of the amplifier seems to be infinite. In
reality, the following relationship governs the behavior of 𝑖𝑒 and 𝑣𝑏𝑒 . In particular,
𝑞𝑣𝐵𝐸
𝑖𝑒 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑏𝑇 − 1) (6)
Δ𝑣𝐵𝐸 26
𝑟𝑒 = ≈ Ω (7)
Δ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑒 (𝑚𝐴)
When 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 (room temperature). 𝑖𝑒 in this equation describes the current through
the emitter at the room temperature. In the event that 𝑅𝑒 = 0, then the gain of this
amplifier is
Δ𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑐
≈− (8)
Δ𝑣𝑏 𝑟𝑒
The next question is concerned with the input and output impedances of this transistor
circuit. The output impedance can be seen as
Δ𝑣𝑐
𝑅𝑜 = |( )| = 𝑅𝑐 (9)
Δ𝐼𝑐
While the input impedance is approximately
𝑅𝑖 ≈ 𝛽𝑅𝑒 (10)
as was shown earlier. So, this is an ideal amplifier with large gain controlled by the
collector and emitter resistances while offering a high impedance. For this reason,
common-emitter amplifier is commonly used in practice.
Solution
Without the loss of generality, we choose 𝑅𝑐 = 500 Ω. We also assume 𝑅2 = 1 𝑘Ω.
Given a gain of -5, we have (this assumes a large 𝛽. We will verify this later in this
example)
𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑒 = = 100 Ω
|𝐺|
Now, using the IV characteristic (shown below) we draw a load line that intersects the
𝑖𝑏 = 0 line at 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 5 (this is the point where 𝑖𝑏 = 𝑖𝑐 = 0) while crossing the
𝑉𝑐𝑐 5
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0 line at 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑅 = 600 = 8 𝑚𝐴. The operating point is selected for 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 3 𝑉.
𝑒 +𝑅𝑐
3 𝑚𝐴
This results in 𝑖𝑏 = 20 𝜇𝐴. This also results in 𝐼𝑐 = 3 𝑚𝐴. Then, 𝛽 = 20 𝜇𝐴 = 150 ≫ 1.
So, the large beta condition is satisfied. Then, we have
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝐶 = 3 𝑚𝐴 + 20 𝜇𝐴 = 3.02 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑏 = 0.7 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝑒 ≈ 1
𝑏𝑉
Now, the current through resistor 𝑅2 is 𝐼2 = 1 𝑘Ω = 1 𝑚𝐴. Hence, the current through 𝑅1
𝑉𝑐 −𝑉𝑏 5−1
is 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑏 = 1.02 𝑚𝐴. Then, we have 𝑅1 = = 1.02 𝑚𝐴 = 3.9 𝑘Ω.
𝐼1
The last step of the design is the selection of the two capacitors in the design. For that,
we require the input impedance of the circuit. For an AC operation, the capacitor at the
input sees three resistors in parallel (for an AC analysis, one must ground the power
supply, which will put 𝑅2 in parallel to 𝑅1 and the input impedance of the common-
emitter amplifier. That is, 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 , where 𝑅𝑖 = 𝛽𝑅𝑒 is the input impedance of the
common emitter amplifier, all appear to be in parallel when seen from the input
capacitor. Hence,
1
𝑓𝑖 = (11)
2𝜋𝑅𝑒𝑖 𝐶𝑖
1
where 𝑅𝑒𝑖 = 1 1 = 755 Ω. We then have
+1+
3.9 150×0.1
1 1
𝐶𝑖 = = ≈ 21 nF.
2𝜋𝑅𝑒𝑖 𝑓𝑖 2πR ei 104
For the output capacitance, we have
1
𝑓𝑜 = (12)
2𝜋(𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 )𝐶0
where 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 is the load resistance of the device connected to the output of the
amplifier. In practice, 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 50 Ω. Note that the output resistance of a common-
emitter is 𝑅𝑐 (as shown above). Hence,
1 1
𝐶0 = = = 19.29 nF
2𝜋(𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 )𝑓0 2𝜋(500 + 50)15 × 103
This complete our design of a practical amplifier. It is important to note that the BJT circuit
can be DC biased in a number of ways, and the approach used above is only one such way.
You will have some degrees of freedom in completing your design.
4) Equivalent Model for BJT
In the previous experiment, we provided a simply model for DC behavior of BJT. We can
extend this model to a model that can be used for AC analysis of the BJT. In studying the
AC behavior of circuit, all DC voltage sources must be grounded and all DC current sources
must be left open. This simplifies the analysis if a model for BJT can be found. In Fig. 3, we
have model for AC analysis of BJT.
Fig. 3. A simplified AC model for BJT.
In this model,
𝑖𝑐
𝑔𝑚 = ≈ 40𝑖𝑐 (𝑉𝑇 ≈ 0.025), (13)
𝑉𝑇
𝛽
𝑅𝜋 = = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 , (14)
𝑔𝑚
and
𝑉𝐴
𝑅𝑜 = | | (15)
𝑖𝑐
where 𝑉𝐴 is a large negative voltage that corresponds to the 𝑖𝑐 = 0 point of the IV
characteristics. If you note the IV-charactrsitics of a BJT from previous experiments, you
recocnize that the current does not stay constant (alhough it appears so) with changes in
𝑉𝐶𝐸 . In fact, the lines have a positive, albeit small slope. Now, if you extend the IV-
charcteristic lines to the left (extrapolate backwards), all the lines merge to a single point
on 𝑖𝑐 = 0 line. The resulting voltage, which can be as negative as -75 volts, is 𝑉𝐴 . Finally,
𝑟𝑒 was computed earlier. In this model, 𝑔𝑚 is the transconductance, and the capacitors
can be obtained from the BJT datasheet. In some analysis, 𝑟𝑒 is ignored as 𝑅𝜋 ≫ 𝑟𝑒 .
5) Differential Amplifiers
In the previous section, we learned about amplification using a BJT. In many practical
applications, there is an interest in amplifying the difference between two signals. In that
case, one is in need of what is called a “differential amplifier.” Such a device can be
implemented using a pair of BJTs in four basic configuration:
1. Single Input Balanced Output (SIBO)
2. Single Input unbalanced Output (SIUO)
3. Double Input Balanced Output (DIBO)
4. Double Input unbalanced Output (DIUO)
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅𝐿 (18)
Before we conclude this section, it is important to discuss the DC biasing of the
differential pair. For the circuit discussed above and under the conditions stated
previously, it can be shown that the operating points of the two BJTs are the same
and are given by (𝛽 ≫ 1, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑒𝑒 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑖𝑐 =
2𝑅3
and
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑐
6) Current Mirrors
It is often of interest to duplicate a current in the circuit at one point in another
point of the circuit regardless of loading effect. This task is accomplished using a
current mirror concept, shown below.
𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 𝐼𝑜
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 =
𝑅1
and (assume identical BJTs with current gain of 𝛽)
2𝐼𝑐
𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 𝐼𝑐 +
𝛽
The last equation is obtained by writing the KCL for the junction of the two BJTs.
Now,
𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐶 =
2
1+
𝛽
This implies that the output current is entirely determined by the reference
current. This arrangement requires a large 𝑅1 . A more practical design is shown
below.
In this case, 𝐼𝐶1 ≈ 𝐼𝐸1 ≈ 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 . Also, 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼𝑜 ≈ 𝐼𝐸2 . We need to find 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 for
a given input and output currents as well as a given 𝑉𝐵𝐸 for a given 𝐼𝐶 . To see this,
let us consider an example.
Example 2
We like to design a current mirror with 𝐼𝑜 = 10 𝜇𝐴, 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 1 𝑚𝐴. Assume that for
the BJTs, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 `for 𝐼𝐶 = 1 𝑚𝐴.
Solution
Given 𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝐼𝐸 (or 𝐼𝐶 ) relationship,
𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸2
≈ = exp ( ),
𝐼𝐶2 𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑇
where 𝑉𝑇 is the threshold voltage for the BJT diode junction (it is assumed to be
𝐼
0.025 V). Hence, 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 + 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 𝑅𝐸𝐹
𝐼
).
𝑂