Section 13

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

13 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
13.1 History of magnetism
It was known that magnetite (an iron ore Fe3O4) attracted small pieces of iron
in 1819, observed a relationship between electricity and magnetism. This phenomenon is
now known as electromagnetism.
13.2 Types of magnetism
There are three types of magnetism:
1 Ferromagnetism
This is shown by materials which can be strongly magnetised and which show good
magnetic properties.
2 Paramagnetism
This is shown by materials which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic fields.
3 Diamagnetism
This is shown by materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field. Any externally
applied magnetic field induces a like magnetic field within the material and repulsion
occurs.

Table 13.1 Magnetic properties of a selection of materials.

13.3 Theory of magnetism

In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are
gathered together in groups called domains. These
domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting
as a north pole, the other as a south pole. This
magnetic moment is created by the combined effort of
the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the
atom and by electron spin, which is the rotation of
the electron around its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised the domains lie distributed randomly and their
magnetic effects cancel each other see Figure 13.1.
When an external magnetic field is introduced the
domains align themselves north to south in a
common direction see Figure 13.2.
When all the domains in a material are fully aligned
the material is said to be in the magnetically
saturated state see Figure 13.3.

Even after the external magnetic field is removed there will

be some residual magnetism left in the material as the
domains will not be totally randomized see Figure 13.4.

13.3.1 Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles are located
at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be concentrated at these
points. The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is said to be the pole pointing
towards the Earth’s North Pole; the south seeking pole pointing towards the Earth’s
South Pole.

Magnetic poles show attraction and

repulsion. Like poles repel one another,
unlike poles attract one another see
Figure 13.5.

13.3.2 Magnetic field

This is described as the area surrounding a
magnet in which the magnetic forces exist.
Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux
represent the magnetic field. These lines
are purely imaginary and were introduced
by Michael Faraday as a means of
visualising the distribution and density (flux
density) of a magnetic field. The SI unit
used to measure the flux density is the
Tesla (T).
For practical MPI the minimum flux density
required is 1.0(T).

Characteristics of the magnetic lines of force

Magnetic lines of force are considered to:
 Have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs.
 Travel from North Pole to South Pole externally.
 Travel South Pole to North Pole internally.
 Form a closed loop.
 All have the same strength.
 Not cross each other.
 Seek the path of least resistance.
 Be in constant tension.
 Decrease in density with increasing distance from the poles.
 Decrease in density (spread out) when moving from an area of high permeability to an
area of lower permeability.
 Prefer to travel in materials that easily accept magnetic fields.

13.4 Electromagnetism
The type of magnetism produced in a bar magnet is known as
longitudinal magnetism. In electromagnetism, when an electric
current flows through a conductor (copper wire or rod), a magnetic
field is set up around the conductor in a direction at 90 o to the electric
current. This is explained by the Right Hand Rule.
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in the direction in which the current is flowing,
then the direction of the magnetic field is represented by the fingers.
When a conductor carries an electrical current, strong magnetic flux lines are created (in
the direction of the fingers as with the Right Hand Rule see Figure 13.7), this is called
circular magnetism.

Circular magnetism is not polar and cannot be

detected externally on a round symmetrical
specimen. However, if the original conductor
carrying the current is bent into a loop, the
magnetic field around the conductor will pass
through the loop in one direction.

The field within the loop has direction: one

side will be a north pole and the other a south pole. By increasing the number of loops,
a coil, or solenoid, is created and the strength of the field passing through the coil is
proportional to the current passing through the conductor in amperes multiplied by the
number of turns in the solenoid.
When a ferromagnetic specimen is placed in an energised coil, the magnetic field is
concentrated in the specimen. One end of the specimen is a north pole and the other a
south pole. This is called longitudinal magnetism; it has polarity and is, therefore, readily
detectable.
13.5 Magnetic Hysteresis
When a ferromagnetic material is influenced by an alternating magnetizing force (H), the
variation of magnetic flux density (B) in it is related to a phenomenon known as magnetic
Hysteresis.
The word, Hysteresis, is derived from the Greek word for delayed and is used to describe
one quantity lagging behind another. The variation of B-H follows a Hysteresis loop and is
characteristic to a particular ferromagnetic material.
The figure below is a typical Hysteresis loop where the co-ordinates represent
magnetising force (H) on the horizontal axis and flux density (B) on the vertical axis.

When an un-magnetised ferromagnetic material is exposed to a gradually increasing

magnetising force, the corresponding flux density can be plotted along the dotted line (o-
a). The level of flux density is increased until point (a) is reached and a further increase
of magnetising force produces no increase in flux density.
The specimen is saturated with flux and indeed, point (a) is called the Saturation Point.
The dotted line (o-a) is often referred to as the Virgin Curve. Point (a) towards point (b)
is where the hysteresis loop begins. As the Magnetising Force is reduced the flux density
does not fall back to zero but follows the line (a-b). So, at (b) there is a zero magnetising
force but a flux density (o-b) remains. The flux is lagging behind the force and this is
what gives ferromagnetic materials their permanent magnetism.
To reduce the flux density to zero, or demagnetise the specimen, a negative
magnetising force (c) has to be applied and maintained. So as the force increases to
produce the relationship of B-H, it follows the line (b-c). The force (o-c) required to
demagnetise the specimen is called the Coercive Force.
Increasing the negative magnetising force still further produces a B-H relationship along
the curve (c-d). Point (d) is exactly opposite point (a) and represents negative
saturation.
As the negative force is reduced, point (e) is reached, exactly opposite point (b) and
reversal to a positive magnetising force achieves a zero flux density at point (f), exactly
opposite point (c).
The loop is completed by increasing the magnetising force, giving a B-H ratio along curve
(f-a). Note: Once the Virgin Curve is produced, the Hysteresis loop does not pass through
(o) again. The specimen will not be demagnetised until special steps are taken to achieve
this.
13.5.1 Hard and soft ferromagnetics
As stated earlier, a Hysteresis loop is
characteristic to a particular
ferromagnetic material.
The inner of the two curves shown is
characteristic of materials such as low
carbon steel defined as a soft
ferromagnetic, whilst the outer would be
typical of a hard ferromagnetic material
such as high carbon steel. Modern
permanent magnets are generally made
from the latter (hard ferromagnetic) and
are of low permeability/high
retentivity alloys that have been
subjected to large magnetising forces.

Table 13.2 Soft and hard ferromagnetic material properties.

13.6 Definition of terms

The following definitions are considered relevant to understanding the practice of MPI.

Flux density
The number of magnetic flux lines per unit area.
Symbol = B
SI unit = Tesla = T
Magnetising force
The total force tending to set up a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
 Symbol = H
SI unit = Ampere-turns per metre = Amps per metre.
Permeability
The ease with which a material can be magnetised.
Saturation
The stage, at which any increase in the magnetising force H applied to a
specimen, produces no significant gain in flux density B.
Effectively this is at point (a) on diagram of the Hysteresis loop.
Coercive force
The reverse magnetising force required to remove residual magnetism from a
material. On the diagram of the Hysteresis loop it is represented by (o-c).
Remanence
The magnetic flux density remaining in a material after the magnetising force has
been removed. On the Hysteresis diagram it can be any value of B, between (b)
and (e), when, H = zero.
Residual magnetic field
The magnetic field remaining in a material after the magnetising force has been
reduced to zero.
Reluctance
A measure of the degree of difficulty with which a component can be magnetised
that is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit. It is the opposite of
permeability.
Retentivity
The magnetic flux density remaining in a material after the magnetising force has
been removed, synonymous to Remanence.
13.7 Flux leakage
A flux leakage is a break or a discontinuity in a magnetic circuit. Any abrupt change of
permeability within a magnetic specimen will change the number of flux lines that can
flow and thus, there will be a diversion of the field.
Magnetic particle inspection relies on flux leakage fields being seen on the surface of a
ferromagnetic specimen under test. All defects produce flux leakage but not all flux
leakage fields are created by defects.
Magnetic particle inspection relies on:
 Magnetising the specimen to an adequate flux density.
 Applying fine ferromagnetic particles over the surface of the specimen.
 Being able to see the magnetic particles that gather at flux leakage fields.

The magnetic field must run in a direction so that it can be interrupted by the defect,
thus producing a flux leakage field. Also the degree of distortion at the leakage must
allow the magnetic particles to provide an adequate degree of contrast between the
leakage and the adjacent material surface, so that it is readily visible.
Flux lines will take the path of least resistance, hence the highest permeability.
The figure below shows flux lines flowing in a ferromagnetic bar, but having to divert
around an air gap, creating a flux leakage.
However, if ferromagnetic particles are
sprinkled on the bar they will start to
form a magnetic bridge across the flux
leakage and a highly preferred path.
If the flux leakage is strong, such as a
surface-breaking crack in the optimum
direction, then the visual indication will
be clear.

Whether a flux leakage is made into a

visual indication depends on a number of factors, such as:
 Size of defect.
 Shape of defect.
 Volume of defect.
 Orientation of defect.
 Depth below surface.
 Permeability of material (hard or soft ferromagnetic).

13.7.1 Indications
Indications are any particle indications that are seen on the specimen under test. Just as
not all flux leakage fields are defects, not all indications are due to flux leakage.
Indications can be further subdivided into:
 Relevant. - Non-relevant -  Spurious )‫زائف (كاذب‬

13.7.2 Relevant indications

Relevant indications are discontinuities or flaws which in turn are unwanted
imperfections.
When it is considered that a relevant indication will affect the fitness-for-purpose of a
test specimen, then it is classified as a defect but not all defects are cracks.
Defects are categorised by their:
 Size - Position.- Orientation.

13.7.3 Non-relevant indications

Non-relevant indications are true magnetic particle patterns formed and held in place by
leakage fields. However, they are caused by design features and the structure of the
specimen and only in exceptional cases will they affect the fitness-for-purpose of the
specimen.
Below is a non-exhaustive list: (exhaustive ‫)شامل – مفصل‬
 Tool marks.
 Abrupt changes of geometry.
 Dissimilar magnetic material (HAZ or heat-treated
material).
 Forging flow lines.
 Grain boundaries.
 Cold working.

13.7.4 Spurious indications

Indications that are not held on the surface by a
flux leakage are termed spurious this could be due
to scale or dirt.
However, there is one spurious indication called magnetic writing that is a little
different. If two pieces of steel touch when one of them is in a magnetized condition,
local poles are created at the areas of contact. If magnetic particles are then sprayed
on the surface, the local poles become visible as fuzzy lines.
13.7.5 Longitudinal field
It has already been stated that magnetic flux lines must run in a direction so they can be
interrupted at a defect causing a flux leakage. So, to detect defects, the flux lines should,
ideally, be at 90o to the direction of potential
defects.
Figure 13.14 below shows, the magnetic lines of
force are longitudinal in a bar and thus the bar has
magnetic poles. Transverse flaws will easily show;
but longitudinal defects such as seams, which are
very straight, will not show.
However, it is accepted that flaws up to 30o from the
flux lines will also be shown. In fact, longitudinal
flaws having a transverse component, such as
jagged cracks, will almost certainly show.
13.7.6 Circular field
The longitudinal magnetising field in the bar is
now replaced by a longitudinal current, which
creates a magnetic field at 90o to itself. In fact,
the current has produced a circular, non-polar
field around the bar.
Under normal circumstances, the circular field
is not detected due to it having no external
poles, but a longitudinal surface flaw at 90o
creates a flux leakage, creating miniature
poles (consequential poles) and is thus detectable with magnetic particles.
13.8 Methods of magnetisation
The equipment used for MPI can be divided according to size and purpose.
When electricity is introduced into a specimen in order to magnetise, it is usually
transformed into a low voltage, high amperage supply. Therefore, there is no danger
from electrocution; however, specimens do get hot due to electrical resistance if the
supply is applied for more than a couple of seconds.
Magnetising equipment must meet the requirements of and be used in accordance with
BS EN ISO 9934-3.
Equipment falls into two categories: portable and fixed.
13.8.1 Portable equipment - permanent magnets
Permanent magnets produce a longitudinal magnetic field between the poles.
Modern variants of the horseshoe magnet have adjustable arms and may have variable-
geometry, removable pole ends. The optimum defect detectability is at 90o to the poles.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders, good contact between the pole pieces
and the work piece is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces, flat for plate and
radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces.
For more complicated shapes, for example, when examining the weld at 12 ’clock on the
joint of a vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as well as
being shaped in order to make good contact.
BS EN ISO 9934-1 states that a lift test should be carried out before a magnet is used for
MPI. The lift test should confirm that the magnet can lift 18kg with a pole spacing of
between 75-150mm. The inspection area is between the poles and half the pole spacing
either side.

13.8.2 Electromagnets
Electromagnets are made from soft iron
laminates to reduce eddy current
losses, if powered by alternating current
(AC). The yoke laminates are encased in
a multi-turn coil usually powered by
mains electricity, which has been
stepped down to 6 or 12V. The legs of
modern equipment are normally
articulated to allow area contact on
uneven surfaces.
Electromagnets produce a longitudinal field with the test area being a circle inscribed by
the poles. Defect orientation is the same as when using a permanent magnet. BS EN ISO
9934-1 states that a lift test should be carried out prior to using for MPI. The lift test
should confirm that the electromagnet can lift 4.5kg with a pole spacing of up to
300mm.
Table 13.4 Advantages and disadvantages of electromagnets.
13.8.3 Prods
Prods induce a circular magnetic field by sending a high amperage current (typically
1000A) through the test piece. The high amperage can cause arcing between the
electrodes and test surface. Contact points must be carefully cleaned, and electrode
materials chosen to prevent contamination of the test piece.
Prods produce a distorted circular magnetic field
with defects showing at a maximum when
orientated along a line between the prod tips.
Particular care has to be taken to avoid surface
damage of the component under test due to arcing
or contamination.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a
composite MPI unit that is purpose designed and
built for underwater use, see Figure 13.19.

Table 13.5 Advantages and disadvantages of Current Flow Prods.

13.8.4 Flexible Coil

In this technique the current-carrying cable is wound tightly around the component. It is
a longitudinal magnetisation method and will find defects lying parallel to the cable.

A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching the coil,
will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to show how
the technique may be applied.
Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so
that the area under inspection is contained within the
encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being
spaced equidistant to each other, The area to be
tested is considered to lie between the turns of the
coil. See Figure 13.21.

As AC produces magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece, the thickness of the
material is of no consequence, so another constant, 10 replaces T.
Close Wrapped Coil
In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling coils.
However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil to ensure an
adequate flux density in this are.
The current requirement for this technique is
determined by the formula:
Where:

Ipeak = Peak current value (AC).

r = Radius of the coil (mm).
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3).
16 = Constant.
The distance either end of the coil where minimum
field strength of 1.0 Tesla should be present, is given by
the formula:

Where:
d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0T).
N = Number of turns in the coil.
I = Peak current (Amps).
30 = Constant.

It is also possible to produce a

transverse magnetic field by looping the
conductor into a configuration called
parallel loops.
This produces a transverse field
between the two sides of the loop. The
loop has to be positioned so that the
current in the two sides of it is moving in
the same direction, otherwise the
magnetic fields will tend to cancel
instead of reinforce.

Furthermore, the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be a minimum of 10d
away from the inspection area. The
direction of the field may be ascertained
by applying the Right Hand Rule. The
required current may be found by
applying the formula:
Ipeak (ac) = 30 x d

Note: This is the coil end effect formula

transposed.

The OIS mark 2 sub-sea MPI unit may

be used for this technique. Current up to
1000 amps can be used.
This method of magnetising ferromagnetic materials offers development potential for
producing adequate magnetic fields for inspecting structures that have complicated
shapes, like nodes and pipe intersections.
Table 13.6 Advantages and disadvantages of coils.

13.9 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques

Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous technique is used
almost exclusively for underwater applications because of the possibility of wash out or
dilution of the indicating medium in the water.
13.9.1 Continuous Magnetisation
This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as the indicating
medium is applied. The area under inspection is then examined while the magnetic field
is maintained. This method is generally regarded as being the more sensitive, but
indications of defects other than actual damage; such as cracks, can be given.
For example, leakage fields from the coil wrapped around the work piece and flux
leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious indications, such as grain boundaries, due
to high flux density in these regions.
The closer the magnetic
field is to saturation the
more sensitive it is to
flux leakage due to small
order inhomogeneities in
the material.
The recommended flux
level for satisfactory
crack detection is
between one third and
full saturation.

13.10 Detecting media, UV light and other equipment

The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection is determined by the sensitivity
with which it is possible to detect the change in the magnetic field due to the presence of
a defect causing flux leakage. Underwater this is done by visual observation using an
indicating medium to show the distortion.
13.10.1 Visual detection
Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of the magnetic field as shown by
the patterns in magnetic particles distributed over the test surface.
These magnetic particles are available in dry powder form, liquid slurry or fully mixed
with water and ready to use.
The particles used are fine ferrous-oxides that are much lighter than iron filings and
will go into suspension in water more easily while remaining suspended much longer. A
fluorescent powder (usually green coloured) is mixed with the particles so that they will
fluoresce under ultraviolet light making them easier to see.
The method of use is to apply the magnetic field and while the test surface is magnetised
the ink is applied. Any flaws cause flux leakage with a resultant build-up in flux density.
The ferrous-oxide in the ink will be attracted to this strong magnetic field and will collect
there. Using a suitable ultraviolet light the indication can be viewed, interpreted and
reported.
Ink properties
Ink properties are required to meet a certain standard. The current standard for MPI ink is
BS EN ISO 9934-2. This standard states that inks must be non-toxic, free from
contaminants, not cause discomfort to users and be non-corrosive to the work piece.
Additionally, the ink should have the following properties:
 The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce gravitational effects, go easily into
suspension but not be so fine as to coagulate in the liquid.
 The grains should have elongated shape to facilitate polarisation.
 The grains must have high permeability to be easily magnetised.
 The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the test.
 The ink should have good contrast against the test background to ensure good visibility
and greater sensitivity.
The concentration of ferrous-oxide particles, additives and fluorescent powder is
specified in the standard, as is the method for testing the correct concentration of any
ink.
The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO standard with a
batch number that should be recorded.
 The correct quantity of powder as per the manufacturer’s instructions should be
measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel.
 Inks are available which include wetting agents (a chemical that lowers the surface
tension of the water), however it is more common to add such an agent at this stage.
 Enough liquid is added to the mixing vessel to make it up into slurry which is then put
into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct quantity with water.
 Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the suspension is
maintained and a 100ml sample should be drawn off.
The sample is required to undergo a settling test to confirm the ink has been made up to
the correct concentration.
Settling test
The test is completed to the following procedure:
 Draw off a 100ml sample into a calibrated settling flask (called a Sutherland or thistle
Flask).
 Allow the sample to settle for 60 minutes.
 Read off and record the quantity of solids that will have
collected in the bottom of the flask.

Of paramount importance is the maintenance of the ink

strength. The solid content must be constantly monitored as
detailed in control checks and the ink must be constantly
agitated to keep the solid content in suspension.
Although not stated in current standards, previous standards stated that the solid
content levels should be between 0.1-0.3% by volume for fluorescent ink and 1.25-
3.5% for visible (black) ink, and no more than 10% by weight of other solids.
13.10.2 Lighting and viewing conditions
As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision, the ambient light conditions
and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct levels.
The standards for adequate lighting are stated in BS EN ISO 3059. The minimum
requirements for ambient light and ultraviolet light as stated in the standard are
summarised below:
Visible light inspection (using non-fluorescent inks)
There must be a minimum of 500lux of white light in the viewing area. This light should
be provided by a diffuse light source if possible. An 80 watt fluorescent light tube gives
500lux at 1 metre distance.
Background and ultraviolet light levels (using fluorescent inks)
The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20lux so that
the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be easily seen.
The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000μW/cm2. The wavelength of the light
should be between 365-400nm (a nanometre (nm) is 1 millionth of a mm).
Safety considerations with ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and cancer if not used
under controlled conditions.
As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet light covers a range of
frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB with UVA being the less harmful
wavelengths at 365-400nm, which is why they are used for MPI.
Mercury vapour spotlight bulbs, which produce light by discharging an arc in mercury
vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of ultraviolet light along with
visible white light.
This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Wood’s Filter is placed in front of it, which
blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA at 365- 400nm to pass
through.
Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid looking into it or
shining it into anyone else’s eyes.
Testing the ultraviolet light
There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used in MPI.
 The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the ink to make
identification of flaws possible.
 The wavelength must be in the correct part of the spectrum for operator safety.
 The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less UV light as they age.
They must be checked regularly because of this.
 The requirements stated in the standard must be met.
The procedure for testing the ultraviolet light is completed as follows:
Ultraviolet light test procedure
 Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes.
 Lamps designed for underwater use must be
immersed in cooling water during this test otherwise the
heat generated will damage the seals.
 Shine the light onto a Photometer (black light meter)
holding it at a distance of about 400mm.
 Read the meter and record the results.

Residual magnetic field

At the end of a Magnetic Particle Inspection when the magnetising force is removed a
residual field will remain, the strength of this field will depend on the retentivity of
the material. Applying a field strength indicator to the work piece will assess the
magnitude of the residual field.

Field Strength Indicators

Gauss Meters are devices used to check residual magnetism prior to and
after magnetic particle testing. Field indicators can be adjusted and calibrated.
The greater the deflection of the needle, the greater the residual
magnetic force.
These meters are only for measuring residual field strength. They cannot use to
measure the magnitude of the induced field applied for inspection and will be damaged
if they are used for such.

Any residual field should be removed:

 Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of vector fields that would reduce the sensitivity
of the inspection. (A vector is the result of an opposing or differently oriented field
interfering with the applied field.)
 On offshore structures because they are fixed in the Earth’s magnetic field, subject to
constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic.
 After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic equipment.
 Prior to welding so as to avoid arc blow.

13.11 Demagnetisation
Looking at a typical Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material, after the initial
magnetising force is applied and then removed, it is virtually impossible to end the test
with a zero flux density.
Even if a negative coercive force is applied it will only keep the flux density at zero, as
long as it continues to be applied.
Figure 13.29 shows that the key to
demagnetisation is that a reversing and
reducing magnetising force must be
applied, so that the Hysteresis loop
reduces until all the parameters achieve
zero. There are a number of ways to
achieve this.

13.11.1 Coils: reducing AC

current
The process only requires that the Hysteresis loop be collapsed. This can be achieved
by reducing the magnetising force to zero over a short period of time, as indicated in the
above diagram. This is accomplished by using a rheostat to wind down the current as
opposed to just switching it off, which would leave a residual field.
13.11.2 Electromagnetic yoke
A most useful way to remove local residual fields on components in situ, on a structure
that cannot easily be moved or removed, is by
means of a portable AC powered electromagnet.
The energised yoke is pulled over and off the
component, to a distance of about 450mm and
then switched off.
If the level achieved is not adequate, the
operation is repeated in the same way and
direction until the residual field is removed.
13.12 Alternative forms of electric current applied in MPI
Inducing a magnetic field as previous mentioned that either AC or DC may be used. The
induced magnetic field strength and characteristics are determined by the type of this
current.
First, consider measuring electricity. For the purpose of inducing a magnetic field, the
amperage is the more important value. In underwater inspection, the voltage is kept
as low as possible for safety reasons and, only about 4 volts potential is applied to the
coils or prods. However, up to 1000amps may well be used.
13.12.1 Direct Current (DC)
Is an electrical current flowing in one direction only and effectively free from pulsation.
Therefore, after a small build-up period, the current is at a constant peak value and this
is what the meter reads.

Direct current is either supplied from a permanent magnet, a battery pack or a DC

generator. In the early days of MPI, DC was almost universally used. This is not so today.
Table 13.7 Advantages and disadvantages of DC current.

13.12.2 Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is a form of electricity which, after reaching a maximum value in one
direction, decreases, reverses direction and reaches a maximum in the opposite direction
before returning to zero. It is cyclic and the cycle is repeated continuously. In the UK,
50Hz is the commercial norm but 60Hz is common in many countries.
However, when AC is used to induce a
magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials;
the magnetic field will be limited to a
narrow region at the surface of the
component. This is known as the Skin
Effect because induction is not a
spontaneous ‫ تلقائى‬reaction and the
rapidly reversing current does not allow
the domains down in the material time to
align.

As the current is constantly reversing, no

single value for the current can be measured. To determine a single measured value
for an AC current the root mean square (RMS) value, as seen in Figure 13.33, is
calculated. An amperage reading indicates the current being applied. The meter will be
indicating an RMS value. Therefore, to obtain the peak value, multiply the meter
reading by 1.414.
Table 13.8 Advantages and disadvantages of AC current.

13.13 Verification of magnetisation

BS EN ISO 9934-1 specifies that the adequacy of the surface flux density should be
established.
Portable flux indicators, such as the Burmah Castrol Strip are giving a clear visual
indication of the direction of the surface field. They provide only a guide to the
magnitude and direction of the tangential field strength and as such, should not be
used to verify the acceptability of the field strength.
They are a rough guide to the magnitude of the surface field. (This is only true if the flux
indicator abuts )‫ متاخم (ارتكز على‬intimately with the test specimen).
Flux indicators consist of a magnetic material that is interrupted by nonmagnetic
spacers. When the flux indicator is placed on the surface of a magnetised specimen and
if the magnetic field at the surface is sufficiently high, flux leakage above the artificial
flaws (spacers) can be detected by a magnetic particle ink or powder.
Flux indicators are made with high permeability magnetic materials with low
Coercivity and low Remanence so that a flux can be easily induced into them, yet
without permanently magnetising them. However, when a permanent magnet or
electromagnet is used, good area contact of the poles is imperative ‫ واجب‬or the flux
indicator is useless. Results may be misleading when indicators are used in a coil.
Flux indicators may be divided into two main types:
 Segment type.  Foil type.
13.13.1 Segment type
Four or eight identical segments )‫ شرائح (قطع‬of ferrous metal are joined with non-
magnetic compound of even thickness into the shape of a flat disc. One surface of the
disc is covered with non-magnetic foil to prevent magnetic particles getting to the
surface and giving misleading indications.
The eight segment type, with a fixed foil is popular in the US.
A Berthold Penetrameter is a four section indicator with an adjustable foil, giving a
varying air gap between them. This device has been designed to indicate flux direction
and sensitivity (field strength). The central, cylindrical iron piece is cut into quadrants to
provide indications at 0 and 90 degrees. This piece is capped with a thin, non-magnetic
foil that is mounted on an adjustable screwed spacer, allowing the surface of the
Penetrameter to be raised off the surface of the item being inspected.
When the Penetrameter is placed on a magnetised test surface, magnetic lines of flux
will pass through the cut quadrants of the iron cylinder. These cut lines will then be
visible, when using either wet or dry MPI testing media. Maximum indication direction
can be achieved by rotating the Penetrameter about its axis, so that the cut lines in the
Penetrameter will be at right angles to the
direction of the magnetic field. The sensitivity
of the testing media can be determined by
slowly turning the outside knurled ring of the
Penetrameter, increasing the distance off the
test surface. The amount of lift off at the point
where the indication just appears, gives a
measure of the magnetic field test sensitivity.
13.13.2 Foil type
The most common foil type indicator is the Burmah Castrol Strip, called a Magnetic
Flux Indicator. These indicators consist of a magnetic foil containing linear slots of
different widths to simulate discontinuities, sandwiched between non-magnetic foils from
brass or stainless steel depending on whether they are for general or aerospace use.
The simulated discontinuities in a magnetic flux indicator are arranged in three parallel
lines. These foils are less than 0.2mm thickness and flexible, which gives them a
significant advantage over the segment type.
They are placed on the test object as it is being inspected, ideally at 90o to the possible
defect orientation. The number of linear indications and thickness of the slot indications
produced on the strips, gives the Inspector a general idea of the magnetic field strength
in that particular area.
They are relatively easily applied to the component and can be successfully used with
both wet and dry inspection media, using the continuous method of magnetisation.
Disadvantages of these strips are that they cannot be bent to complex shapes and
are not suitable for multi-directional field systems since they only indicate defect
indications in one direction only.
13.13.3 Gauss meter
This is an electric powered meter that
will read the field strength directly from
the input of a probe that is applied to the
test area. The meter gives a digital
readout in Tesla, see Figure 13.37.

13.14 MPI test procedure

General procedure that may be applied or
adapted for offshore use would be:
13.14.1 Surface checks:
 Obtain the necessary work permits (hot work may be required).
 Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the circuit.
 Test all circuit breakers or residual current devices (RCD).
 Check all electric cables for integrity.
 Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct.
 Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO 3059:2001 specifications.
 Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 (settling test).
 Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning correctly.
 Calculate the required current.
 Function test all the MPI equipment.
 Ensure the Gauss Meter is functioning and ready for deployment.
 Ensure all ancillary equipment is available, (tapes, hammer and punch).
 Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed.
 Prepare the recording equipment (CCTV, camera, data sheets).
13.14.2 In-water preparation:
 Establish the down lines and working lines on the correct site.
 Clean the inspection site to the specifications (SA2½ for 75mm).
13.14.3 Pre-inspection:
 Establish the datum and place tape measure, mark up the weld.
 Complete a close visual inspection (CVI). Identify any areas that may cause spurious
indication during the MPI.
13.14.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection:
 Rig the transformer safely as close as possible to the test site.
 Switch on the ultraviolet light.
 Confirm that ambient light is less than 20lux.
 Rig and lay out the coils, parallel loops, prods or magnet on the test site.
 Demagnetise the work site.
 Confirm the ink is constantly agitated.
 Position the Gauss Meter ready to monitor the induced field strength.
 Switch on the current on the diver inspector’s command, record current.
 Read out the indicated field strength on the Gauss Meter (1.0T minimum).
 Apply ink as required to the weld and complete the inspection.
 As the inspection progresses confirm adequate field strength at each clock position.
 If any indications are identified, re-inspect to confirm the findings.
 With confirmed indications record:
- Location (distance from datum). – Length - Orientation and position on weld.
- Continuous or intermittent - Branching or not - Weak or strong indication.
 Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure.
 Retest after grinding.
 Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required.

13.14.5 Post inspection

 Demagnetise.
 De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface.
 Wash all equipment with fresh water.  Flush out the ink system.
 Report the results to the client.  Cancel work permits.
13.15 Recording indications
The actual MPI indications can be recorded in a number of ways.
13.15.1 Ultraviolet photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either:
 An ultraviolet lamp with a long exposure time on the camera.
 An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash.

13.15.2 Foil packets (Magfoil)

These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that are
separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied to the test
site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the mixing liquid that is
kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire flux indicator is also mounted
inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents by
manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents will take on
a grey colour.
 Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100 seconds.
 Apply the magnetising force during this period.
 The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet.
 Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes).
 The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth can be
measured.

Foil Packets (Magfoil)

 Supplied in ready-made, two-compartment packets.
 These contain magnetic particles & the mixing liquid.
 A flux indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
 Break the internal barrier & mix the contents.
 After 45 seconds, the contents will take on a grey colour.
 Apply the bag to the test site.
 Contents remain liquid for 100 seconds.
 Apply the magnetising force during this period.
 Indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet.
 Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (5 minutes).
 Remove & measure the indication length & breadth.

13.15.3 Video
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles when the
ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on disc.
13.15.4 Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic particles
adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be applied underwater.
It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.
Rubberised Tape Transfer:
 Rubberised tape can be applied to a dry
indication.
 This cannot be applied underwater.
 It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.

13.15.5 MPI data report sheet

All MPI inspections will be recorded on a data report sheet see Figure 13.39.

13.16 Factors affecting MPI sensitivity

The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which the test
will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will depend in the
main on three factors:
1 Diver inspector.
2 Equipment being used.
3 Conditions on site.
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as being
comfortable and well equipped for the dive as possible:
 Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test.
 Be confident in his ability to detect defects with it.
 Be sure of the value of his contribution ‫ مساهمته فى الكفاءة‬to the efficiency and safety of
the plant or structure he is inspecting.
These last three points are obtained from the inspector by good training and an active
involvement in the inspection function.
The sensitivity of the MPI test will depend on several factors, some of which will be within
the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity of detection depends
ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between the defect and its
surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape and orientation of the
defect.

Figure 13.40 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance.
An explanation that affect the sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection follows.
13.16.1 Surface condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an important
factor. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic particles were being used.
13.16.2 Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks
are used. The diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet
lamp to detect any deterioration in brightness.
13.16.3 Ink condition (3)
Important factors here include the best colour to attract the attention of the inspector
and the right size of particle. This is tightly controlled by the appropriate standard, there
could be some consideration given to larger size particles that may give better contrast.
The physical condition of the ink is also important. It should be a finely divided
suspension of particles that is delivered to the work piece and so the diver inspector
should check to see that the agitator is working continuously. This should be a regular
part of the routine.
13.16.4 Field strength (4)
This must be high enough to hold the ink to the surface of the defect.
13.16.5 Factors affecting definition
The following factors are important when considering definition.
13.16.6 Ink condition (5)
As can be seen from the chart the ink condition has an effect on both contrast and
definition. The definition can be improved if the defect outline is picked out by fine
magnetic particles.
13.16.7 Geometry of the work piece (6)
In the main, MPI has to be carried out by diver inspectors on welds that are parts of
complicated nodes in very difficult position in a hostile environment.
This might be the most significant weakness in the system and methods of improving
the procedures.
13.16.8 Efficiency of the magnetic field conditions (7)
The effectiveness with which the inspector can set up the magnetic field condition is
the heart of the magnetic particle inspection. Factors like current flow, field direction,
electrical contact of the prods, coil fill factor, need to be considered carefully.
 Section 15
The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection
15 The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection
15.1 Introduction
Video is used almost universally in diving for monitoring the diver and the task.
All video should be recorded as a matter of procedure.
15.2 Advantages of video
The advantages of using video include the following:
 Real-time transmission of images from the diver to the surface.
 Useful for monitoring diver safety and wellbeing.
 If the ship has sufficient bandwidth available then it is possible to stream the video
signal using an internet connection to a remote location, eg to the client’s headquarters.
 Instant playback is possible.
 Video generates a permanent record of the inspection.
 The video stream may be overlaid with telemetry data from sensors relating to the
inspection.
 Effectiveness and efficiency may be improved by topside specialists assisting the diver-
inspector with site identification, expert opinion and comments.
 Often the video is accompanied by an audio commentary given by either the diver-
inspector or the inspection controller.
 Remotely controlled cameras may be deployed in hazardous areas where it may be
imprudent to send a diver.
 High definition video is available which records excellent quality images.

15.3 Disadvantages of video

The disadvantages of using video include the following:
 Commonly, only a two-dimensional image is recorded. However, 3-D camera systems
(both single camera and twin camera) are becoming more readily available and are likely
to become more widely used for underwater inspections in the future.
 Image quality is not as high as a contemporary digital stills camera.
However, modern camera and transmission systems may produce acceptably good
quality video and stills images that meet all the client’s requirements.
 Analogue recording and copying of video data degrades image quality.
However, digital recording systems record and copy with a high degree of fidelity.
15.4 Videography systems
The basic components of a video system are:
 Underwater video camera. There are different types of camera – see section 15.5.
 Underwater light. This may be separate or combined with the video camera, eg a halo
camera has a coaxial light around the periphery of the lens.
 Umbilical. Usually the light conductor and the video conductor are contained within the
same element of the diver’s umbilical.
 Power supply/video controller. This usually supplies the camera with a constant voltage
supply and a variable supply for the light.
 Video decoder/video recorder. The decoder will be part of the monitor, the computer or
the video recorder.
 Video monitor. This will usually be a computer monitor or a TV monitor.

Ancillary video equipment may include:

 Video typewriter/overlay writer.
 Picture-grabber and printer.

15.5 Video cameras

There are three types of camera commonly used for underwater applications:
15.5.1 Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Camera
The term charge coupled device refers to the type of sensor used to capture the image.
It is the same type as is commonly used in digital stills cameras.
The CCD is the most widely used type of video camera.
CCD cameras have the following features:
 Colour.
 Good resolution.
 Compact and lightweight.
 Solid state - ie they have no moving parts and are robust.
 Not damaged by bright lights or by magnetic fields.
 Excellent depth of field.
15.5.2 Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Camera
The SIT camera is an image intensifier – ie a low-light camera. They are typically used for
ROV navigation and long range viewing. They are particularly useful in turbid water when
the intensity of the video lights may be turned down in order to reduce backscatter.
SIT cameras have the following features:
 Monochrome – ie not colour.
 Lower resolution than CCD cameras. Therefore not used for detailed inspection work.
 May be damaged by bright light and care must be taken to protect the sensor.
 Generally larger and more bulky than CCD cameras.
 Often deployed by ROV.

15.5.3 Near-SIT CCD cameras

Although these CCD cameras do not have such good low-light performance as a SIT
camera, they do have very good low-light characteristics.
They have the following advantages over SIT cameras:
 Higher resolution than a SIT camera.
 Lighter and more compact than a SIT camera.
 More robust than a SIT camera.

15.6 Video transmission standards

The image is encoded by the camera to form the video signal. During this process, the
image is broken down into a number of lines, each containing a number of pixels. The
number of lines comprising the video image is a good indicator of the picture quality –
the more lines there are the higher the quality.
There are two basic types of video encoding; analogue and digital:
15.6.1 Analogue encoding standards
There are three standards for analogue video:
National television system committee (NTSC). This is an American standard that
encodes at 510 lines.
Phase alternating line (PAL). This is a European standard that encodes at 625 lines –
ie a slightly higher quality than NTSC.
Sequential colour with (avec) memory (SECAM). This is a French standard that
encodes at 625 lines. Because of the difficulty of editing SECAM signals, many users
have migrated to either NTSC or PAL.
15.6.2 Digital encoding standards
High definition (HD) is defined as any video equipment that enables greater than 625
lines to be encoded. At the time of writing, the highest quality system in common use
encodes at 1080 lines.
The HD encoding standards are linked to either the NTSC or PAL formats. The
fundamental difference between the two is the frame rate.
Another variation with digital systems is in the
way that the image is built up on the monitor
screen. It may be refreshed by alternately
renewing all the odd lines and then all the even
lines. This system is called interlacing.
The alternative system renews lines in order,
starting with the first one and finishing with line
number 1080. This is called progressive scan
and gives a sharper image than an interlaced
system.
It is critical that the decoding standard agrees
with the encoding standard of the camera.
15.7 Video recording and storage
If the video signal is recorded using an
analogue system then the quality is
degraded. Video home system (VHS) records at 200 lines and super-VHS encodes at
400 lines.
Digital recording maintains image quality and it is common to record the video data
directly onto a computer hard-disc drive or onto a digital versatile disc (DVD).
Management of the digital video files is often achieved using video database software.
A video log sheet is used to index comments against the video counter during the
inspection. It can then be used as an index for the video file.

The format of the video log sheet is provided by the client.

15.8 Ancillary video equipment

A video typewriter is used to create title pages on the video. These are typically the
header and footer on the video recordings.
A video overlay is used to create a transparency over the video. This is typically used to
create overlays of telemetry data from sensors relevant to the inspection, eg depth,
heading, CP value, etc.
A picture-grabber is a software tool used to grab a still image from the video stream.
Although the image quality is not as high as a contemporary digital stills camera image,
the picture is usually adequate for most client’s requirements. Indeed, modern picture-
grabbers are of sufficient quality that they are beginning to negate the need for digital
stills imaging.
A printer is often used to generate hard-copies of picture-grabbed images.

15.9 Deployment of underwater video

15.9.1 Diver helmet-mounted video
This is commonly referred to as a helmet-mounted television camera (HMTV).
HMTV is a standard method of deploying video for offshore divers, whether engaged in
inspection work or not.
Specific advantages of HMTV include:
 Constantly active – useful for monitoring diver safety and operational effectiveness and
efficiency.
 Shows the diver’s point-of-view – ie where the diver is looking.
 The diver-inspector can respond to topside camera commands.
 The diver-inspector has both hands free.
 The light and the camera are both fixed to the helmet and thus always aligned.
 The diver-inspector or the inspection controller can give an oral commentary.
 The diver has eyes on the task and so can give the best description of features that are
seen and can respond to questions from the inspection controller.
Specific disadvantages of HMTV include:
The helmet may not be manipulated into small spaces.
Parallax error must be managed by the diver.
Parallax error arises from the offset between the diver’s line of sight and the axis of the
video camera. Because of the parallel axes, the fields of view of the diver and the
camera are not coincident. Only in the area where the fields overlap do both the diver
and the camera see the subject.
The closer the diver is to the subject, the greater the parallax error.
15.9.2 Hand-held video
The use of hand-held video cameras is less common than HMTV.
The specific advantages of hand-held video cameras include:
 The camera may be manipulated into small spaces.
 The diver inspector can respond to topside camera commands.
 The diver-inspector or the inspection controller can give an oral commentary.
 The diver has eyes on the task and so can give the best description of features that are
seen and can respond to questions from the inspection controller.
The specific disadvantages of hand-held video cameras include:
 Not constantly active but is switched on only during inspection work.
 Parallax error.
 The light and the camera are no longer mounted on the same platform and may not be
aligned.
 The diver has only one hand free.

15.9.3 ROV-mounted video

ROV deployed video is universally used for inspection and survey work.
The specific advantages of ROV-mounted cameras include:
 Exceptional endurance. The vehicle is not limited by decompression or fatigue.
 May be safely deployed in hazardous environments. For example high water currents.
 The vehicle is usually equipped with powerful lights giving excellent illumination.
 The vehicle may carry multiple cameras – the best can be chosen for any given
conditions.
 Multiple sensors may provide detailed telemetry. For example depth, heading, CP, etc.
The specific disadvantages of ROV-mounted cameras include:
 Vehicle access may be restricted, eg by penetration into the structure or debris.
 Poor stability when operating in shallow water in rough sea conditions.
 ROVs are less versatile than divers.
 No human eyes on the subject – the view is limited by the quality of the video system.

15.9.4 Fixed video mounting

The specific advantages of fixed video mounted cameras include:
 Constantly active.
 Safely deployed in hazardous environments.
 May have remote pan, tilt and zoom controls.
 Excellent stability.
 Ideal for continuous monitoring. For example Lay-barge stinger monitoring.

The specific disadvantages of fixed video mounted cameras include:

 Camera is limited to one specific task.
 Camera requires regular cleaning.
 No human eyes on the subject - the view is limited by the quality of the video system.

15.10 Preparation for deployment of underwater video

The preparations for the dive will include:
 Inspection of the video equipment for damage.
 Lubricate any seals according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
 Test any residual current devices or other safety features.
 Function test the video system.
 Centre the camera and light on their brackets.
 Prepare the video log sheets.
 Prepare the recorder.
15.11 Practical techniques for underwater video inspection
15.11.1 Standard camera commands
The diver-inspector must be able to respond to basic camera direction commands:

15.12 Video commentary

15.12.1 Fluency
The ability to give a fluent commentary is a skill that requires practice but there are four
basic points to keep in mind:
1 Keep a steady rhythm to your speech.
2 Keep to a reasonable speed. Most people tend to talk quickly when giving a
commentary, so concentrate on slowing yourself down.
3 Keep an even volume. The client will not want to continually adjust the playback
volume when listening to your commentary.
4 Keep a natural pitch to your voice. People naturally change the intonation of their voice
at the end of a sentence. This is done sub-consciously but serves an important function –
it lets the receiving person know that the packet of information we have been
communicating has come to an end. It can be very confusing to listen to a person who
does not change pitch in this way at the end of a sentence.
The best way to achieve fluency when giving a commentary is to have in mind what
you are going to say before you start to say it!

15.12.2 Introduction
There are four elements to a video introduction:
1 Who? Who am I? Who is the contractor? Who is the client?
For example ‘This is diver-inspector Jon Smith. The contractor is JS Diving.
The client is TWI Oil...’.
2 What? What am I doing?
For example ‘Performing a general visual inspection...’.
3 Where? Where am I?
For example ‘On the Charlie-1 leg of North Cormorant platform between zero and minus
20m elevation…’.
4 When? Time and date.
For example ‘The date is the 1st of January, 2013. The time is 16:30 hours’.
15.12.3 Termination
Do not forget to let the viewer know when the inspection has terminated.
For example ‘This concludes my inspection. The time is 17:30 hours’.
15.13 Video pointer
The diver-inspector uses a video pointer during inspections in order to provide a scale
and a colour reference for the viewer. It is also more precise ‫ دقيق‬when pointing at
features than using a finger.
An adequate video pointer may
be fabricated from a rod wrapped
with tape.
The pointer should have a series
of gradations on it – typically
every 10mm. It should also have
the primary colours near the tip.
The tip should not be sharpened.

15.14 Post-inspection
Post inspection actions should include the following:
 Gently rinse the camera in fresh water. Be careful not to force water past any seals.
 Clean the camera lens with lens tissue and fit the lens cap.
 Inspect the equipment for damage.
 Store the equipment in a dry, well ventilated place.
 Complete the video log.
 Finalise the DVD and label the disc.
 Back up data on hard drive.

All video should be recorded as a matter of procedure.

 It doesn’t necessarily follow that because a diver is equipped with CCTV, the signal is being recorded.
 Since it’s fundamental that inspections are recorded, it’s safe to assume the terms video & videography refer to
video data that is being recorded.

Underwater light - separate or combined with the camera.

 Light & video cables contained in the diver’s umbilical.
 Power supply/video controller - supplies the camera with a constant voltage supply & a variable supply for the light.
 Decoder/recorder will be part of the monitor, or a computer.
 Video typewriter & overlay writer.
 Picture-grabber & printer.
There are three types of camera commonly used underwater.
Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Camera.
CCD refers to the type of sensor used to capture the image.
 It is the same type used in digital stills cameras
 The most widely used type of video camera

CCD cameras have the following features.

 Colour.
 Good resolution.
 Compact & lightweight.
 Solid state - no moving parts & are robust.
 Not damaged by bright lights or magnetic fields.
 Excellent depth of field.
Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Camera.
 Is an image intensifier – i.e. a low-light camera.
 Used for ROV navigation & long range viewing.
 Useful in turbid water, when the intensity of the video lights may be turned down to reduce backscatter.
SIT Cameras have the following features:
 Monochrome.
 Lower resolution than CCD cameras.
 May be damaged by bright light.
 Generally larger & more bulky than CCD cameras.
 Often deployed by ROV.

Near-SIT CCD Cameras.

 Although these CCD cameras do not have quite such good low-light performance as a SIT camera, they do have very
good low-light characteristics.
Have the following advantages over SIT cameras:
 Higher resolution.
 Lighter & more compact.
 More robust.

Images are encoded by the camera to form the video signal.

 The image is broken down into a number of lines, each containing a number of pixels.
 The number of lines is a good indicator of the picture quality – more lines, higher the quality.
There are two basic types of video encoding:
 Analogue.
 Digital.
There are 3 standards for analogue video:
 National Television System Committee (NTSC).
 American standard that encodes at 510 lines.
 Phase Alternating Line (PAL).
 European standard that encodes at 625 lines.
 Sequential Colour Avec Memoire (SECAM).
 French standard that encodes at 625 lines.
Digital Encoding Standard.
High Definition (HD) is defined as:
 Any video equipment enabling greater than 625 lines to be encoded.
 The highest quality system in common use encodes at 1080 lines.
 The HD Encoding Standards are linked to either the NTSC or PAL formats.
 Difference between them is the frame rate.
Another variation with digital systems is in the way that the image is built up on the monitor screen.
It may be refreshed by alternately renewing all the odd lines then all the even lines – Interlacing.
Progressive Scan renews lines in order, starting with the first & finishing with line 1080, it gives a sharper image than
interlacing.
It’s critical the decoding agrees with cameramen coding.
If the video signal is recorded using an analogue system, then the quality is degraded.
 Video Home System (VHS) encodes at 200 lines.
 Super-VHS encodes at 400 lines.
 Digital recording maintains image quality.
 Common to record the video directly onto a disc drive or a DVD.
A video log sheet is used to index any comments against the video counter
It can then be used as an index for the video file.
Preparations for the dive will include:
 Inspect for damage.
 Lubricate any seals.
 Test any RCD’s or other safety features.
 Function test the video system.
 Centre camera & light on their brackets.
 Prepare the video log sheets & recorder

Fluency
The ability to give a fluent commentary requires practice, & there are 4 basic points to keep in mind:
 Rhythm.
 Speed.
 Volume.
 Pitch.
There are 4 elements to a video introduction:
 Who?
 Where?
 What?
 When?
Remember:
 Let the viewer know the inspection has Ended
Post Inspection Actions:
 Rinse the camera in fresh water.
 Clean the lens & fit the lens cap.
 Inspect for damage.
 Store in a dry, well ventilated place.
 Complete the video log.
 Finalise the DVD & label the disc.
Back up data on hard drive.
Divers use a video pointer during inspections in order to provide a scale & a colour reference for the viewer:
 More precise when pointing than a finger.
 Should have a series of graduations – typ. 10mm.
 Should have the primary colours near the tip.
The tip should not be sharpened.
 Section 16
Inspection Methods Available to Inspect
Underwater Structures
16 Inspection Methods Available to Inspect Underwater Structures
16.1 Visual inspection
Visual inspection is the most commonly used method of inspection. This is because:
 It is cheap and readily available.
 Many features of engineering importance can be seen on the surface of the material or
structure.
 It generally precedes any non-destructive testing (NDT) that is to be carried out on the
component.
However, visual inspection cannot detect sub-surface features such as lack of sidewall
fusion within a weld – hence, often the requirement for NDT.
We have two approaches to conducting underwater visual inspections:
General visual inspection (GVI)
The aim of the GVI is to provide the client with a general impression of the underwater
state of the structure. The area inspected is often not cleaned as an assessment of
marine growth is commonly conducted as part of the GVI.
The datum for the GVI is given to the diver-inspector by the inspection controller (by
reference to the client’s procedure) and will comprise of )‫ تتكون من(تشمل‬a 12 o’clock
datum for clock positioning and a reference datum for distance positioning. The diver-
inspector may then report the location of features according to their clock position and
an estimation of the distance from a datum.
For example: ‘At the 6 o’clock position, 3m from leg Charlie, there is an area of impact
damage. It is approximately 1m long by ½m wide and is 20mm deep’.
Features that are likely to be reported during a GVI include:
 Structural features, eg welds, pad eyes, intersecting members, etc.
 Imperfections, eg impact damage, debris, tool marks, etc.
 Marine growth – type, thickness and extent.
 Paint coatings – type, condition and cover.
 Corrosion damage, etc.

Close visual inspection (CVI)

The aim of the CVI is to provide the client with an accurate report of detailed features
such as those seen on a weld. The area is cleaned prior to conducting a CVI – the specific
cleaning requirements will be detailed in the client’s procedure, but for weld inspection
these are generally; clean to a matt, bare metal surface finish (SA2½) the weld cap and
to 75mm either side of the toes of the weld.
The datum for the CVI is given to the diver-inspector by the inspection controller (by
reference to the client’s procedure). It is often marked by three punch-marks near the
weld. The diver-inspector may then report the location of features according to their
start and stop positions on a tape laid with zero at the datum. As such, distances are
measured to the nearest millimetre (ie to +/- ½ mm accuracy).
For example: ‘From 1330mm to 1345mm
we have porosity on the cap of the weld’.

Features that are likely to be reported

during a CVI include:
 Normal features, eg stop/start, other
intersecting welds, etc.
 All imperfections, whether specified in
the client’s CNC or not.
 Corrosion damage, etc.

It is important to note that visual

inspection does not generate a record of
the inspection – a separate recording technique must be employed. This could simply be
the diver’s memory or notes and sketches on a scratch-board. Most often, videography
and photography are used.
16.2 Videography
Videography is often used in conjunction with visual techniques to record their results.
Generally, diver-inspectors may use either:
 Helmet-mounted cameras (HMTV).
 Hand-held cameras.
The video recording is accompanied by an oral commentary that may be performed
either by the diver-inspector or by the inspection controller. Still images may be taken
from a video stream by picture-grabbing the image.
16.3 Photography
There are two commonly used photographic techniques for underwater inspection:
Close-up photography
Close-up photography is when the camera lens is within 1 metre from the subject.
The optics of the camera can be used to magnify the subject to elicit greater detail.
Linear subjects, such as welds, will require multiple overlapping photographs (30 to
50% overlap) to be taken to form what is termed a photomosaic.
Stand-off photography
Stand-off photography is when the camera lens is more than 1 metre from the subject.
This technique is used to capture images of large features such as flanges, anodes, etc.
For reasons of picture quality, the maximum stand-off from the subject to the camera
lens is limited to one-third of the underwater visibility.
Other photographic techniques
If we combine two images within a computer programme, we may produce a three-
dimensional representation of the subject. This method is known as stereo-
photography.
Photogrammetry is a technique for taking measurements from photographs.
This may be achieved using a Reseau plate or by stereo-photographic analysis.
16.4 Ultrasonic techniques
Ultrasonic NDT utilises the behaviour of high-frequency sound waves. It is particularly
suitable for investigating two-dimensional (planar) features because they have
relatively flat surfaces. These surfaces will readily reflect the ultrasonic beam and will be
easily detected.
There are several ultrasonic techniques that may be used underwater:
Digital Thickness Meter (DTM)
The DTM is also known as the ultrasonic thickness meter (UT meter).
The DTM filters out all minor signals and displays only the distance to the major
reflector on the digital display, making it relatively easy and quick to use. It is
commonly employed for wall thickness measurement and basic lamination checking.
16.4.1 A-scan flaw detector
The A-scan flaw detector displays major and
minor signals on a graphical screen. Interpreting
the display requires skill and can be time-
consuming.
Typically used for thickness measurement,
lamination checking and for ultrasonic weld
inspections. A frequency of 5MHz is commonly
used (A-scan & DTM).

16.5 Radiography
Although X-ray radiation is used for topside inspections, the equipment is too complex
to use underwater - gamma radiation is employed instead. Gamma radiation is
produced by the radioactive decay of radioisotopes such as Iridium-192.
Gamma radiography may detect planar defects within the material if the radiation
pathway is carefully aligned to the same expected orientation as the defect.
Volumetric defects are more easily detected by radiography as the user does not
need to align the radiation pathway.
Radiography also produces a permanent recording – the radiograph. Measurements
of the sizes of features and defects within the material may be made from the
radiograph, as can the thickness of the material itself.
The main drawback in using radiographic inspection is that it is a potentially
hazardous technique. The costs of the equipment and safe management make it
relatively expensive.

16.6 Crack detection techniques

There are three crack detection techniques that
can be used underwater:
16.6.1 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
MPI is a technique that involves magnetising the part that is to be inspected, applying a
detection ink and visually inspecting for indications that betray the presence of surface
imperfections. As such, it can only be performed on ferromagnetic metals such as steel
but not on non-ferromagnetic materials.
Also, the surface requires cleaning to a matt, bare-metal (SA2½) finish.
Underwater MPI is used to detect the presence of surface-breaking cracks but will not
give any indication of their depth.
16.6.2 Electromagnetic detection techniques
A major advantage of electromagnetic crack detection techniques is that, unlike MPI,
they do not require the removal of protective paint coatings. Also, they can be used to
detect cracks in non-ferromagnetic materials.
However, a disadvantage of electromagnetic detection techniques is that they do not
give visual indications of the locations of defects and they require skilled operators to
interpret the data.
There are two electromagnetic techniques that are used underwater:
16.6.3 Eddy current technique
Eddy current works by inducing a circular (eddy) current to flow in the surface of the
material. Any surface discontinuity will upset the symmetry of the eddy current and be
detected by the equipment.

Eddy current technique will

detect the presence of a
surface-breaking crack, but
will not give any indication of
its depth.

16.6.4 Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)

ACFM is a development of the eddy current technique but works in two perpendicular
planes. Thus, it has all the same features as eddy current technique, but it can also
indicate the depth of the cracks that it finds.

16.7 Flooded member detection (FMD)

If the member is flooded, then further investigation as to the cause of the flooding will be
required.
Both diver-inspectors and ROVs can test for flooded members by using ultrasonic FMD
probes. The equipment makes use of the fact that an ultrasonic beam is blocked by a gas
– ie a dry space. A low frequency ultrasound of 0.5MHz is used.
An ROV may also be fitted with radiographic FMD equipment. This fires gamma
radiation, using Caesium 137, through the structural member and meters the amount
of radiation that passes through the enclosed space – a high reading would indicate a dry
void.
Note: Radiographic FMD is too hazardous for diver use.

16.8 Taking measurements underwater

Linear measurements
Vernier calipers may be used for measurements of typically up to 150mm. It can
measure both linear features and internal/external diameters.

Weld gauges may be used to measure small scale linear features such as undercut,
excess weld material and fillet leg-length. They may also be
used to measure angles of up to 90 degrees.

A weld gauge is a practical and cost-effective small-scale

measuring tool.

The Linear-Angular Measurement (LAM) gauge may be used to measure many small
scale linear and angular features as per the weld gauge. The LAM gauge is superior to
the weld gauge in that it may be used on a curved
surface and is particularly accurate when measuring the
depths of remedial grinds.

A LAM gauge is a more expensive precision measuring

tool.

Rulers or tape-measures are simple and practical small-

to-medium scale measuring tools. Magnetic tape-
measures are especially useful in underwater close visual
inspection.
For large scale linear measurements we may use an open
reel tape-measure, position referencing using underwater transponders or narrow-
beam ranging sonar that may be mounted on an ROV or hand-held by the diver
inspector.
Circular measurements
Internal and external diameters may be measured using calipers and gauges.
Gauges possess a calibrated scale and are direct measurement tools.
Calipers are generally used as comparators and are an indirect measuring tool (an
exception being the Vernier caliper – Vernier referring to the type of scale used).
Angular measurements
Angles may be measured using a protractor, weld gauge or LAM gauge.
Angles of large components such as mooring chains may be measured using an
inclinometer (pendulum gauge).
Special tools and jigs
Peculiar measurements may require the fabrication of a special tool or jig. For example,
an ovality jig is used for measuring circular distortion in structural members.
Photogrammetry
Measurements may be obtained by computer analysis of photographs in a technique
termed photogrammetry. This is an especially useful method of measuring marine
growth, anode wastage, damage, etc.
16.9 Crack depth measurement
The depth of cracks may be gauged using one of three techniques:
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
ACFM can both detect the presence of a surface-breaking crack and give an indication of
its depth

Alternating current potential drop (ACPD)

Any conducting material will possess an electrical resistance. ACPD equates a
calibrated measurement of electrical resistance (measured in terms of a voltage or
potential drop) to the distance travelled by the electrical current.
The ACPD probe is calibrated and then
placed so as to span the known crack
position.
The potential drop measured by the
equipment indicates the depth of the
crack.
Thus, ACPD will not locate a crack in a
material but it will indicate the depth of
a crack whose position is known.

Investigation by hand grinding

The depth of a crack may be discerned by ‫ تم تمييزه‬a careful sequence of shallow grinds
using a hand grinder.
16.10 Cathodic Potential (CP) measurement
CP is a measurement of the electrical potential (voltage) at a certain location on a
structure. This is achieved by connecting a voltmeter between the structure and a
reference electrode (reference cell) – most commonly silver/silver chloride. Both the
voltmeter and the reference cell are built into the tool, called a Bathycorrometer.
The CP value can imply the state of the corrosion protection being offered to the
structure.
16.11 Recording shapes and surface profiles
On the microscopic-to-small scale, surface profiles may be recorded using a casting
material. These are pressed onto the surface of the material and allowed to take up the
shape of any defects present. The resulting cast is removed and then analysed.
A carefully taken cast may be put into an electron microscope to reveal detail of grain-
sized features.
Small-to-medium scale surface features may be
recorded by taking a series of spot measurements
with a Vernier caliper along an area of impact
damage or by using a profile gauge

Profile Gauge is used to build up a series of cross-

sections and the results traced onto a dive slate or
scratch-board.

Small-to-large scale surface

profiles may be recorded using
stereophotography.

Large scale surface profiles may be recorded using a taut-wire survey. In this
technique, a wire is anchored at either end and stretched tight along eg a damaged
brace. Regular measurements are made along the wire to create a profile of the
deformation.
If performed twice along
perpendicular planes then a
three-dimensional
representation of the
deformation may be gained.

Taut-wire Survey
Large-scale surface profiles
 Section 17
Inspection Maintenance and Repair,
Quality Assurance and Quality Control,
Recording and Reporting
17.1 Legislation relating to inspection of offshore structures
In 1992 the UK Government brought into force The Offshore Installations (Safety Case)
Regulations SI 2885 (1992). These regulations expand the Health and Safety at Work
Act (1974) to offshore structures in the UK sector of the North Sea.
DCR SI 913 (1996) Design and construction regulations
PSR SI 825 (1996) Pipeline safety regulations
PFEER SI 743 (1995) Prevention of fire, explosion and emergency response regulations
MAR SI 738 (1995) Management and administration regulations
PUWER SI 2932 (1998) Provision and use of work equipment regulations
The main intent for all requirement is to reduce any risk to be:
As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
DCR SI 913 (1996) and TOISCR SI 2885 (1992) specify and rely on verification NOT
certification. The regulations also specify that there must be an appointed Duty
Holder who has the authority to carry out a self certification scheme. The Duty Holder
will normally be the operating company and is responsible for ensuring that the
structure remains in a safe condition to carry out its design purpose.
The regulations specify that verification must be obtained from an Independent
Verifying Body (IVB).
There are four IVB’s appointed by the regulations:
1 Lloyd’s Register of Shipping.
2 DNV/GL.
3 Bureau Veritas.
4 American Bureau of Shipping.
There is no statutory requirement to inspect structures, however the Duty Holder must
satisfy the IVB that a particular structure or component does not require any
inspection to ensure safety and obtain verification of this.
The IVB does have the authority to stop all operations on any structure if it considers
that it is damaged or that major alterations or deterioration are likely to impair the
structure’s ability to perform its design task.
In practice the Duty Holder will invariably evolve a full inspection programme that will
ensure the safety of plant and personnel, which must be submitted to the IVB for
verification.
The Duty Holder must appoint the IVB at the design stage of the structure development
so that continuity of verification may be maintained.
17.2 Structural integrity management of ageing installations
This requires the submission of a Revised Safety Case to the HSE where material
changes to the previous Safety Case have occurred, including extension of use of the
installation beyond its original design life.
Within this context, the Duty Holder is expected to be able to demonstrate that major
hazards due to, or associated with, ageing have been identified, that they are
adequately controlled and that all relevant statutory provisions will be complied with.
This means that deterioration and degradation must be integrated into an Asset
Integrity Management (AIM) system and associated plan. The purpose of the AIM
plan is to provide a link between the assessment process and the inspection strategy on
an on-going basis.
17.3 The importance of QA and QC
QA and QC are two sides of the same coin. All the Offshore Operators operate Quality
Management Systems which all rely on Quality Assurance procedures to ensure that all
management functions, including but not limited to, efficient operations, safety,
conformance to legislation and protection of assets are completed effectively, without
waste or duplication up to required standards.
Furthermore, all these functions must be applied the same way every time to a
measurable standard; the entire system must also be actively managed and continuously
improved.
The Quality Control is applied to ensure that all the processes associated with the
Management System are in fact complied with and executed correctly. The QC ensures
that the processes meet the measured standard and that this fact is recorded.
The QA for offshore structures starts with the written procedures and continues with the
inspections, audits and other documentation that is certified and recorded throughout
the life of the structure.
The QC follows this same path, producing the documentation that verifies that the
various processes have all been completed.
There are a number of different methods that any company can adopt to ensure that
Total Quality Management (TQM) is achieved, but commonly BS EN ISO 9002:2008
is adopted.
The importance of QA and QC to any large organisation is that it is fundamental to the
ability of a company to function. Without procedures that demand a certain standard,
that are controlled by verification to ensure correct compliance, a large company would
descend into anarchy and bankruptcy very quickly in the modern business world.
QA and QC begin with the conception of the structure and will continue throughout all the
stages of the structure’s life right through to decommissioning.

17.4 Databases and trend analysis

Modern QA systems make extensive use of databases and offshore inspection reporting
follows this trend. The major factor to emphasise with a database system is the way
information is stored.
The great advantage of a database is the accessibility to the information. Each item of
information will have a number of tags; the information can then be called up from
different points. Take as an example that an anomaly has been reported on a horizontal
brace on a jacket.
The anomaly can be called up or accessed by:
 The type of anomaly: - pitting, crack, impact damage, etc.
 Using member identification.
 Using platform identification, in this case all damage on the platform will be listed with
its location.
 Using platform identification and defect type, in this case all defects of that type on the
platform will be listed with its location.
Once the database is set up trend analysis is facilitated and all the data required for any
type of analysis is both more extensive and more easily accessed.
17.5 The importance of documentation and record keeping
The QA system indicates how important documentation and record keeping are, and of
course, documentation and record keeping are fundamental elements of any quality
system. The various inspection reports, damage registers, fabrication drawings, material
documentation and other records, become part of the QA, forming the archives that
prove structural integrity.
Additionally, the offshore operators will maintain records for:
 Engineering assessments and analysis.
 Recording defects and damage.
 Maintaining the damage register.
 Monitoring defects or damage that is not repaired.
 Modifying the existing IMR programme where necessary.
 Evolving future structural designs.
 Compliance with the statutory requirements and verification by the IVB.

17.6 Types of reporting systems

There are basically two types of reporting systems:
17.6.1 Full reporting
This system requires that every item or component inspected, that has any blemishes,
deterioration or damage, no matter how minor, is reported as being defective.
This system:
 Generates large volumes of data that must be reviewed by responsible engineers.
 Much of the data will be considered non-relevant after being reviewed.
 The review of the data requires a good deal of time.
 It is possible that serious defects could deteriorate further during the time taken to
review the inspection data.
This system is seldom used offshore as the anomaly based reporting system is
preferred.
17.6.2 Anomaly based reporting
This system requires that only items that are outside specified parameters be reported.
Any other, blemishes, deterioration or minor damage is accepted with the component
being considered as fit for purpose. This system still requires that every item included
in the inspection program is fully inspected, but only items outside the specifications are
reported as defective.
This has several ramifications:
 The Duty Holder must specify the parameters for all types of damage or deterioration.
The normal response to this requirement is that a Criteria of
Non-Conformance (CNC) is evolved by the Duty Holder.
 All inspection personnel must be fully qualified in the various inspection methods and
skilled enough to apply the parameters laid down in the CNC.
 There is a high level of responsibility on all inspection staff to properly identify any
indication found during the inspection, whether it is to be reported or not, that is whether
it is an anomaly or not. If an inspector misses a reportable defect, it will remain
undetected until the next scheduled inspection that includes that component.
 Every reportable defect will require some actions to be initiated in accordance with the
instructions given in the CNC. These actions may be to repair, conduct further
inspections or to monitor. In any event, there will be more reports and records generated
to prove that the reported anomalies have been dealt with properly.
17.7 Reasons why inspection is required
The safety of personnel is of paramount importance and a regular Inspection,
Maintenance And Repair (IMR) programme will ensure that component or structural
failure is avoided, thus guaranteeing the safety of personnel.
Any structure will deteriorate in service and a properly applied IMR cycle will be designed
to detect degradation, deterioration, fabrication defects, installation damage, design
uncertainties or errors, environmental overload or accidental events. Then, items that
require repair, renewal or replacement can be identified and addressed in a timely
manner, allowing these actions to be undertaken as part of a planned, controlled
programme.
The operators of any offshore structure must comply with the requirements of
Government Legislation and Statutory Instruments.
Whether structures are insured against damage by outside agencies or the risk is carried
by the operator, an IMR programme will be required so that the risk of catastrophic
failure is minimised.
A properly implemented IMR programme will provide raw data that can be entered into
databases to allow computer-based trend analysis for engineering applications.
Inspection data can be used to evolve improved designs for later generation structures,
or for changes in permanent loading or re-use of the structure.
17.8 Continuity of inspection
The life of a structure, after the concept is agreed, may be split into six stages:
1 Design.
2 Production of the raw materials.
3 Fabrication.
4 Launch and commissioning.
5 In service.
6 Decommissioning.
Structural inspection programmes are instigated immediately after the conception of the
structure and then run throughout its life, forming part of the quality management
approach to structural engineering.
Statutory regulations also require that the operators ensure the structures are fit for
design purpose and that verification of this is obtained from appointed Independent
Verification Bodies.
17.9 Design stage
QA and QC (QA/QC) are an integral part of the design stage for any structure.
All the designs, design calculations and drawings have to be prepared and completed to
specified procedures that include checks and internal verification, to ensure compliance
with the numerous standards that apply to the various engineering disciplines and
functions.
At desgin stage, the Duty Holder will nominate the Independent Verification Body that
will be responsible during the life of the structure for verifying that all the statutory
requirements are met. At the outset, the design drawings are subjected to a form of
inspection, validation and verification before they are sent to the yard for fabrication.
Also, at the outset, a marking system will be evolved or adopted so that every
component can be identified, tracked, audited and inspected throughout its life cycle.
With topside items this may be a Tag System where unique identification numbers are
assigned to components such as pumps or generators. The jacket of a structure will
similarly have an identification system specific to the requirements for the component
parts.
17.9.1 Structural marking systems
All marking systems are based on a grid system, where the structure is considered in
plan view to have x and y co-ordinates and the various depth levels are the z component.
17.9.2 Unique Identification System
In this system, which is an extension of the Tag System, each platform has a unique 3-
digit identification number.
This is used as a prefix to a 6-digit
number made up of 3 pairs.
The first pair is a 2-digit code
number for the type of component.
 Main legs 11
- Horizontal braces 12
 Main nodes 13

The next 2 digits indicate the level

starting with 0 at the top of the
jacket where the module is located.
Finally, the last 2 digits are the
identification number of that type of
component on that level (figure
17.1).

17.9.3 The Alpha Numeric System

This system uses letters to denote different
levels, starting with A at the top of the jacket
and working down the alphabet as the levels
descend.
This first letter is followed by an
alphanumeric pair that identify the x and y
co-ordinates on the level.
17.10 The Box Matrix System
The box matrix system firstly denotes a letter for each type of member.
Member M
Node N
Riser R
Conductor C
Pile guides P
Anodes A
And so on for all types of
members.
Then, the levels are denoted
by letters, starting with A at
the top of the jacket and
working down the alphabet
as the depth levels increase.
Finally, there are 2 digits
that represent the x and y
co-ordinates.

17.11 Clock orientation

and datum points
In conjunction with the platform marking system, datum points will be nominated.
Tubular members are always inspected clockwise and so the clock orientation is
nominated.
The 12 o’clock position is invariably ‫دائما وبشكل‬
‫ ضمنى‬the datum point and this may be marked with
up to three punch marks during the fabrication
stage.
Figure 17.4 shows the common orientation for
reading the clock.

In order to determine the clock positions you must

know which way to face, whether up or down, into
the node or platform North etc.

Datum marks can be three punch marks at the 12

o’clock position.

17.12 Safety Critical Elements (SCE)

Another design function is to calculate, identify and specify the numerous safety critical
elements (SCEs) that exist on the jacket, the platform modules and in all the systems
and sub-systems. A SCE is any part or parts of an offshore installation the failure of
which, would cause or substantially contribute to a major incident, or a component the
purpose of which is to prevent or limit the effect of a major incident.
Examples of SCE are:
Systems
 Primary structure.
 Fire and water systems.
 Fire and gas detection systems.
 Hydrocarbon containment systems.
Subsystems
 Mooring system.
 Deluge system.
 Control panels and computer software controlling safety systems.
Equipment
Mooring system main bearing.
Fire pumps.
Fire detection heads.
Electrical equipment in hazardous areas.
The following advice on SCEs in fixed and mobile installations has been given by
Stacey and Sharp (OMAE2011-49090).
Fixed steel installations
Steel substructure, foundations, topsides, temporary refuge and escape routes,
and helideck.
Semi-submersible structures
Hull, mooring system, stability (ballast and control) systems, temporary refuge and
escape routes and the helideck.
Jack-up structures
Legs, rack and jacking system, foundations (spud cans etc.), deck, temporary refuge and
escape system.
17.13 Production of the raw materials
Mild steel, to the 50D specification with tight quality control over manufacture, is a
common choice for North Sea steel structures. Other materials are selected for different
design specifications and concrete for gravity structures is equally carefully specified.
Taking steel as an example, the steel foundry producing the steel will provide certified
documentation with casting specification and material composition.
Plates are serial numbered and totally traceable. Other specified materials will have
similar documentation.
All these documents are verified and filed as part of the QC function. The materials
supplied to the fabrication yards are stored in controlled locations so that it remains fit
for purpose and traceable. As it is issued, certification goes with it and is filed with the as
built drawings and other documentation.

The raw materials may contain flaws or manufacturing defects in spite of the best QA
and QC arrangements.
This has two ramifications:
1 The QA systems employed to minimise defects will be aimed at 100% effectiveness,
however 98% may be realistically achievable. This would be normally acceptable
provided that these defects were with design limits.
2 The presence of manufacturing defects in the raw material would not normally cause
in-service failures, but there is a small risk that they might.
Within the realms of good engineering practice and design tolerances this is acceptable.
17.14 Fabrication stage
The QA and QC continue throughout the fabrication stage of the structure development.
Welding procedures and parameters are all carefully applied and certified. Concrete
composition is monitored, confirmed and certified. All the inspection documentation and
certification is verified and filed with the remaining documents, continuing to build up the
QA database.
17.15 Launching and installation
The launching and installation stages in the structure life are again subjected to tight QC
and the relevant supervision, inspection, control and reporting processes continue to be
implemented and recorded.

It is at this stage that the most extensive underwater inspection will take place.
The inspection undertaken on the structure so far has been extensive and will not be so
comprehensive for the remainder of the life of the structure, although it will continue un-
interrupted.
17.15.1 Base line survey
The first Major In-Water Inspection will be totally comprehensive, including the entire
jacket and all underwater components, attachments and appurtenances including, of
course, the SCEs. The seabed surrounding the structure will be inspected up to 30-50m
from the base. A complete CP system survey will also be completed, including CP
readings and an anode count to confirm the presence and the physical integrity of each
anode. This survey is usually referred to as the Base Line Survey.
The base line survey will confirm that:
 The structure is in the correct position.
 Whether any significant damage has occurred during launch and installation.
 That any damage that is identified is accurately reported and recorded.
 That any significant defects are highlighted for immediate rectification.

The structure will only be declared fit for purpose when either there are no reported
significant defects or any reported significant defects have been rectified and re-
inspected and the results of the Base Line Survey are accepted by the Duty Holder and
verified by the appointed IVB.
The base line survey will be used to evolve or modify an on-going inspection programme
that will extend throughout the remaining life of the structure.
17.15.2 In service
The in-service IMR programme will ensure that adequate monitoring is accomplished to
satisfy the requirements of the Duty Holder, Safe Working Practices and to achieve
verification by the IVB.
The usual programme for in-service inspections is based on a five-year cycle.
Some items are inspected each year while others are inspected less frequently within the
five-year cycle. Each year 20% of all SCE are inspected as a matter of routine, so that
over the five years all will be inspected once. There is always the option to change the
schedule should the need to do this be identified.
A typical annual inspection would include:
 CP survey.
 Inspection of all risers, conductors and caissons.
 CVI of 20% of selected representative welds.
 MPI or similar system eg ACFM of 20% of selected representative welds.
 Complete GVI of the entire structure.
 Debris and marine growth survey.
 Scour survey.
Items on the damage register may be monitored during the annual inspection.
The annual inspection programme reports are monitored and used to update the damage
register and to modify the IMR programme as necessary.
17.16 Damage survey
During the service life of a structure, damage may occur at any time due to
environmental forces, accidents, failure etc. It is a requirement that all damage be
reported and that any incidents are also reported. Unfortunately, not all incidents are
actually reported and damage underwater cannot be seen unless there is an underwater
inspection programme.
It has been determined that approximately 70% of damage found offshore is primarily
due to: the biggest majority of this damage was discovered by routine inspections.
 Collision by shipping. - Fatigue failure. - Dropped objects.
The basis of the inspection is to report anything that appears to be not in the as made
condition. Superimposed on top of this basic rule of thumb, are any specific instructions
contained in the Damage Survey Workbook.
17.17 How the Criteria of Non-Conformance System is applied
The Criteria for Non-Conformance is a set of parameters, issued by the Duty Holder’s
Engineering Department, that defines the limit of acceptance of any damage or defect
that may be identified during any inspection.
During any inspection if an item is identified as not being in the as made condition, the
CNC is referred to, to determine whether the anomaly is reportable or can be considered
as being within acceptable engineering parameters. As an illustration, an extract of a
typical CNC table is shown below.

In the event of finding an anomaly, the CNC will normally include either, a list of follow-up
actions that are authorised to be implemented without further instructions, or to have a
table of technical specifications that lays down these follow up actions.
The method for applying the CNC is straightforward. When any item is identified as being
outside the CNC, the actions dictated by the technical specification are implemented.
The item, and all the data concerning it, is recorded and submitted in the inspection
report. Any authorised immediate follow up action is implemented and the fact that this
has been done, together with the results of the actions taken, is recorded and reported
(figure 17.6).

In the flow chart, the reference to the job card applies to the actions taken by the Duty
Holder’s Engineering Department. A job card system, for initiating work actions of any
kind, is a common approach to control of resources, personnel and finances throughout
industry.
17.18 Documentation in an anomaly-based reporting system
The documentation involved with an anomaly-based system, is normally standardised
data report sheets and is commonly on a computer-based system.
With this method, the responsible engineers become familiar with one method of
presentation of information, which saves time when reviewing the inspection data.
Using standard data sheets also ensures that all the required information is included and
does not rely on memory.
The data report sheets will be reviewed and subsequently form the basis for:
 Further follow-up or additional structural inspection programmes.
 Maintenance or repair projects.
 Any engineering analysis that is required by the Duty Holder.
 Reports submitted to the IVB for verification.
On completion of any review action, the reports will be archived to become part of the
QA records for the structure.
17.18.1 Work scopes and workbooks in an anomaly-based system
A central feature of an anomaly-based system will be a defined Scope of Work for each
inspection campaign, detailing the extent of the inspection, the components or items to
be inspected and the required tasks. The Scope of Work will be contained in the
Workbook issued at the start of the campaign. The Workbook is a part of the
contractual documentation.
The workbook will contain:
 Scope of work.
 List of inspection tasks.
 Procedures.
 CNC.
 All the required drawings.
 Blank log sheets.
 Blank data sheets.
 Anomaly report forms.
 Daily report forms.
 An extract of the damage register applying to the items in the Scope of Work.
In some Operating Companies, the inspection tasks take the form of task code listings,
which contain three digit codes. Each code represents a group of tasks, all associated
with one activity. Then, within that group, different aspects or applications of the activity
can be specified (table 17.4).

The Workbook will generally be in sections:

Work scope
This will define the extent of the inspection.
Technical specifications
Define design details, such as brace diameters, wall thicknesses and structural marking
system.
Field and platform data
These are structural drawings, field layout drawings and environmental details, such as
water depth, tides and currents.
CNC and anomaly reporting requirements
Acceptance criteria to be applied to any anomalies identified during the inspection and
reporting requirements.
Data sheets and log sheets
These contain master copies of standard report forms, to be copied as necessary in a
paper reporting system. In a computer reporting system, the formats will be in the
associated computer programme.
17.18.2 Damage register
The damage register forms a crucial part of the documentation. Any damage on the
structure is recorded on the register, along with the engineering action taken to resolve
the damage. Any new damage identified during inspection activities will be added to the
register.
17.18.3 Data sheets
Data sheets are all computer-generated and most commonly the inspection will be
recorded directly onto a computer. It is becoming more prevalent that the data gathered
during the inspection is input into a database, which is accessible by any authorised
party.
The advantage of having a database is the accessibility of the information that lends
itself very well to any engineering analysis that may be required. An example of a typical
data sheet is shown in figure 17.7
17.19 Verbal reporting
Verbal reports are normally concerned with diver intervention and frequently follow a
question and answer scenario, with the topside asking specific questions for the diver
inspector to respond to. The voice reproduction is via the diver communication unit,
which may leave something to be desired regarding clarity of reproduction.
A radio procedure approach is adopted, with the diver being the control station.
Care must be exercised to speak plainly and the diver’s speech is sometimes difficult to
understand because of poor amplification.
Always:
 Use correct terminology. (quite difficult to understand Sat divers)
 Maintain a fluent flow of speech (decide what to say before you speak).
If a full verbal report is to be recorded onto a video, ensure that the introduction includes
answers to the questions:
 Who is speaking?
 Where is the inspection site?
 What actions are being completed?
 When is the verbal report being made?

17.20 Corrosion protection and coating inspection report requirements

The normal inspection reporting requirements for CP surveys are:
 Visual assessment of anode condition and any deposits, including their type and extent.
 % of anode wastage (may be required to be measured).
 Sacrificial anode stub integrity.
 Impressed current cable and cable duct integrity, also electrode connections.
 Marine growth build-up on any anodes.
 Metallic debris in contact with the structure, identify location, type and quantity.
 CP readings at specified sites or spacing.
 Photographs of representative anodes.
Coating inspections will normally require the following:
 Note % presence of topcoat, primer and bare metal.
 Note any blistering and burst them, (if the client requests this), and try to collect a
sample of any deposit.
 Surface condition of the steel under any blister.
 Note % of any paint cracking.
 Note any paint sagging with the extent.
 Note any paint wrinkling with the extent.
 Note any flaking and note the extent.

17.21 Procedure for the close visual inspection of a weld

Verbal reports are commonly recorded onto data sheets during the actual inspection.
A typical procedure for a weld CVI would include:
 Complete surface checks of all the equipment.
 Obtain the work permits or confirm they have been obtained.
 Locate the correct weld.
 GVI to assess any gross damage and the build-up of marine growth.
 Clean to SA2½ (or any other specified standard) 75mm either side of the weld, plus as
much as necessary for access to SA1.
 Establish the datum and a tape measure and then mark up the clock positions.
 Measure and record the overall weld length (in accordance with the established
platform conventions or procedure).
 Complete the CVI.
 Record the results in real time on the data sheet.
 Record the CVI onto video/DVD/hard drive.
 Take still photographs as required.
 Recover all equipment.
 Wash all equipment in fresh water.
 Report any anomaly outside the CNC in accordance with the instructions given
(normally to the Offshore Client Representative).
 Take any follow up remedial actions authorised in the CNC (normally in consultation
with the Offshore Client Representative).
 Cancel work permits when clear of the work site.
 Incorporate the data sheet into the final report, along with any new anomaly report
sheets and any remedial actions taken.
An example of a typical CVI sheet is contained in figure 17.7.
17.22 Summary of other recording methods used underwater
Scratchboards
This may be a rigid white plastic board or a plastic sheet of paper with a pencil.
Can be used underwater by a diver to make a sketch or take notes when nothing else is
available.
Sketches
These can be useful if there is no other way of recording what the diver inspector has
identified or, incorporated into a report to show a point of detail.
Both scratchboards and sketches may be the only practical way of recording a diver’s
impressions in black water or bad visibility.
Photography
Good quality images of any anomalous items or points of interest may be obtained by
photography and prints included in any type of report.
Video/DVD/Hard drive
Is a prime method for recording all manner of inspection information and is extensively
used throughout the underwater commercial industry. The video records real time
images, which may subsequently be incorporated into a report. Increasingly, good
quality grabbed photographs are being used instead of still-photographs and, though
picture quality lags behind the best digital still cameras, they are often adequate for
most needs.

Radiography
A radiograph is a permanent record by itself and is easily incorporated into a report.
Casts
These may be taken on occasion, but they are difficult to take and incorporate into a
report. There are other ways of recording the images set into casts and, whenever
possible, these are used in preference to taking a cast. When they are taken, care must
be exercised in storing them as they can be easily damaged.
EMD, EMT and ACFM incorporating computer recording
These methods are all available with computer recording facilities and the ability to have
the programme print out the data. This is ideal for incorporation into a formal report.
Sampling
This is normally a specialist form of recording of marine life for example. It does have
other uses, such as collecting gas escaping from the seabed for analysis.
Storage of samples is a difficulty that must be anticipated before the sampling is
undertaken.
17.23 Certification of personnel and equipment
Any Quality Management System (QMS) will include the requirement that personnel and
equipment are certified to a known standard. In the case of personnel in the UK sector of
the North Sea the Certification Scheme for Personnel (CSWIP) Scheme for underwater
inspectors has been adopted.
The scheme certifies four types of inspectors as detailed in the preface. The more
important proficiencies for 3.1U diver inspector level of certification is outlined below
17.23.1 CSWIP grade 3.1U diver inspector
This diver inspector will be proficient in:
 Visual inspection.
 The use of video in hat mounted or hand held deployment mode.
 Taking still photographs.
 Taking CP readings using contact type equipment.
 Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using an ultrasonic digital thickness meter.
17.23.2 Equipment certification
Any equipment used during an inspection programme, must be certified so as to conform
to the QA requirements. This requirement is intended to ensure that all equipment is,
safe to operate, in good working order and is within the required calibration
specifications.
The requirements for legal compliance and the typical QA calibration requirements
are:
 Electrical equipment shall be tested six monthly.
 All electrical equipment must be tested for safety each time it is used; eg all residual
current devices (RCD) should be tested daily, any other type of electrical equipment
should be visually inspected and confirmed safe to use before each use.
 All inspection equipment shall be calibration checked before and after each use.
 A competent person shall calibrate all electrical equipment at intervals prescribed by
regulations or manufacturer’s recommendations and certify this fact. This includes
voltmeters and digital volt meters, which shall be calibrated annually and tagged to
confirm the date the next calibration is due.
17.24 Inspection activities in an anomaly based system
17.24.1 Real time data gathering
Real time data gathering means that the personnel on the job inspect and assess the
components under inspection. Any items, judged to be outside the CNC, will be flagged
up and recorded in real time, on video, by photography or by electronic means. This data
may then be re-evaluated, at a later date, for second opinions or follow up analysis. The
crucial point is that data is only submitted if it is judged to be anomalous at the time of
inspection.
As a comparison some forms of inspection lend themselves to retrospective inspection.
For example, Eddy Current inspection and ACFM inspection store real time data on
computer programmes. The original inspector will make on the spot judgements, but all
the data can subsequently be reviewed. The computer will contain all of the gathered
information, not a selection determined by the original inspector.
17.25 Decommissioning
When the fields become depleted, the various platforms and seabed completions will be
removed. The QA and QC will continue throughout this process to ensure that everything
actually is removed and to verify that the ocean floor is left clear of any debris.
Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations (1992)
expand the Health & Safety at Work Act (1974) to
offshore structures in the UK sector of the North Sea.
These are further clarified by:
 Amplifying Guidance Notes.
 Approved Codes of Practice (ACOPS).
 Statutory Instruments (SI).
The main intent for all of this is, to reduce any risk to
be:
 As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP).

Regulations
The Regulations specify & rely on
VERIFICATION not CERTIFICATION
 Must be an appointed DUTY HOLDER who has
authority to carry out a self-certification scheme.
 The Duty Holder will be a named individual of the
operating company.
 He’s responsible for ensuring that the structure
remains in a safe operational condition.
Regulations specify that verification must be obtained from
an INDEPENDENT VERIFYING BODY (IVB)
There are four IVBs appointed by the regulations:
 Lloyds Register of Shipping.
 Det Norske Veritas / GL.
 Bureau Veritas.
 American Bureau of Shipping.
There are no statutory requirement to inspect
structures.
 Duty Holder must satisfy the IVB that a
structure does not require any inspection to
ensure safety & obtain verification of this.
 The IVB has the authority to stop all
operations, if it considers that damage,
alterations or deterioration may impair its
ability to perform its design task.
The Duty Holder will evolve a full inspection
programme, that will ensure safety
 He must submit it to the IVB for
verification.
 He must appoint the IVB at the design
stage so that continuity of verification is
maintained.

Structural Integrity Management

Ageing & Life-extension
 Were addressed explicitly for the first time
in the 2005 revision of the (Safety Case)
Regulations.
 This requires the submission to the HSE of a
revised Safety Case where material changes
to the previous Safety Case (life-extension)
have occurred.
Structural Integrity Management
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The Duty Holder has to demonstrate that:
 Major hazards due to ageing have been identified &
adequately controlled.
 All relevant Statutory Provisions will be complied
with.
 Deterioration must be integrated into an Asset
Integrity Management (AIM) System & an associated
plan.
 The plan will provide a link between the on-going
assessment process & the inspection strategy.
QA/QC
All Offshore Operators
Operate Quality Management Systems, which rely on
Quality Assurance procedures to ensure that all
management functions:
 Efficient Operations.
 Safety.
 Conformance to Legislation.
 Protection of Assets
are completed effectively up to the required standards.
QA/QC
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Furthermore, all these functions must be:
 Applied the same way every time.
 Actively Managed.
 Continuously Improved.
The Quality Control is applied to ensure that:
 All processes associated with the
management system are complied with &
executed correctly.
 The processes meet the measured standard
& that this fact is recorded.
QA/QC
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The QA for offshore structures.
 Starts with written procedures & continues
with the inspections, audits etc, that are
certified & recorded throughout the structure’s
life.
 The QC follows the same path.
 Producing the documentation that verifies that
the various processes have all been
completed.
Database Systems
QA Systems make extensive use of databases
Advantages of a database system:
 The way the information is stored.
 Accessibility to the information is enhanced.
 Each item has a number of ‘tags’ so data can
be accessed from different points.
Database Systems
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An anomaly reported on a horizontal brace on a
Jacket can be accessed by:
 Type of anomaly, pitting, crack, etc.
 The member identification.
 Platform ID - will list the location of all
damage on the platform.
 Platform ID & defect type - will list the location
of all defects of that type.
Database Systems
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Once the database is set up, trend analysis is facilitated &
all the data required for any type of analysis is:
 More extensive.
 More easily accessed.
Documentation & record keeping are fundamental
elements of any quality system.
The inspection reports, damage registers, fabrication
drawings & records become part of the QA, forming the
archives that prove structural integrity.
Documentation
The offshore operators will maintain records for:
 Engineering assessments & analysis.
 Recording defects & damage.
 Maintaining the Damage Register.
 Monitoring unrepaired defects or damage.
 Modifying the existing IMR programme.
 Evolving future structural designs.
 Compliance with SIs & verification by the IVB.
Reporting Systems
There are two types of reporting systems.
Full Reporting System.
Every component inspected, that has any deterioration or
damage, no matter how minor, is reported as defective.
 This generates large volumes of data.
 Much of it considered non-relevant.
 Reviewing takes time.
 Serious defects could deteriorate further.
Reporting Systems
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Anomaly Based Reporting (The preferred system)
 Only items outside specified parameters are
reported.
 Any other deterioration or minor damage is
accepted, with the component being considered as
‘fit for purpose’.
 Every item included in the inspection programme is
fully inspected, but only those outside the
specifications are reported as defective.
This has several ramifications……
1 The Duty Holder must specify the
parameters for all types of damage or
deterioration.
His response to this is, that he evolves a
Criteria of Non-conformance (CNC)
Reporting Systems
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2 All Inspection Personnel must be:
Fully qualified in the various inspection
methods.
Skilled enough to make value
judgements on the job site, in real
time.
Apply the parameters laid down in the
CNC.
Reporting Systems
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3 There is a high level of responsibility on all
inspection staff to properly identify any
indication found (Is it an anomaly or not).
If a reportable defect is missed, it will
remain undetected until the next
scheduled inspection.
Reporting Systems
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4 Reportable defects
 Will require some actions to be initiated
in accordance with the instructions given
in the CNC.
 These actions may be to repair, monitor
or to conduct further inspections.
 In any event, there will be more reports
& records generated, to prove that the
anomalies have been dealt with properly.
Inspection Requirements
Structures must be inspected regularly.
Safety of personnel is of paramount
importance & a regular IMR programme will
ensure that structural failure is avoided,
thereby safeguarding personnel.
Inspection Requirements
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Any structure will deteriorate in service.
 An IMR cycle will target & identify items
that require repair or replacement, in a
timely manner.
 As part of a planned, controlled
programme.
 Operators of an offshore structure must
comply with requirements of Government
Legislation & Sis.
A properly implemented IMR programme.
 Will provide raw data, that can be entered
into a database for computer analysis.
 Inspection data can also be used to evolve
improved designs for new structures.
Inspection Requirements
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The life of a structure is split into six stages:
 Design.
 Production of Raw Materials.
 Fabrication.
 Launch & Commissioning.
 In Service.
 Decommissioning.
Inspection Requirements
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Structural Inspection Programmes
 Instigated at the conception of the structure.
 Run throughout its life.
 Forms part of QM approach to structural
engineering.
Statutory Regulations also require:
 Operators ensure structures are fit for design
purpose.
 Verification of this is obtained from the IVB.

Design Stage
QA/QC is an integral part of the design stage
All the calculations & drawings have to be:
 Prepared & completed to specified
procedures.
 Have internal verification.
 Be in compliance with the standards.
At this stage, the Duty Holder will nominate the
IVB.
Marking Systems
At the start, a marking system will be evolved
 So that every component can be identified,
tracked, audited & inspected throughout its
life cycle.
 With topside items, this may be a tag system,
where unique numbers are assigned to each
component.
 The jacket will also have an identification
system.
Marking Systems
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Marking systems used in the North Sea.
 Are all based on a grid system.
 Structure in plan view has X & Y co-ordinates.
 Depth levels are the Z component.
Personnel involved with inspection must
understand the actual system used on whatever
structure they inspect.
Unique Identification System:
 Each platform has a unique 3-digit ID number.
 Used as a prefix to a 6-digit number, made up of 3 pairs.
 1st pair is a 2-digit code for the type of component.
 Main Legs 11 - Horizontal Braces 12 - Nodes 13 etc.
 Next 2 digits indicate the level.
 Last 2 digits signify the location of that type of component.

Alpha Numeric System

This system uses letters to denote different
levels:
 Starts with A at the top of the jacket & works
down the alphabet as the levels descend.
 1st letter is followed by an alphanumeric pair
that identify the X & Y co-ordinates on the
level.
6
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Unique Identification System:
 Each platform has a unique 3-digit ID number.
 Used as a prefix to a 6-digit number, made up of 3 pairs.
 1st pair is a 2-digit code for the type of component.
 Main Legs 11 - Horizontal Braces 12 - Nodes 13 etc.
 Next 2 digits indicate the level.
 Last 2 digits signify the location of that type of component.
Marking Systems
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Unique Numbering System

013 Identifies the
structure
12 Identifies the
component
03 Denotes the level
04
Is the fourth
Horizontal brace
on that level
Example – 013 12 03 04
Numbering starts here
Marking Systems
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Alpha Numeric System
This system uses letters to denote different
levels:
 Starts with A at the top of the jacket & works
down the alphabet as the levels descend.
 1st letter is followed by an alphanumeric pair
that identify the X & Y co-ordinates on the
level.
Marking Systems
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Marking Systems
Alpha Numeric System
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Box Matrix System
Firstly a letter denotes each type of component.
Levels are denoted by letters:
 Starts with A at the top of the jacket & works down
the alphabet as the levels descend.
 Finally, 2 digits represent the X & Y co-ordinates.
 Member M
 Diagonal member F
 Node N
 Riser R
& so on for all the
types of
components
 Marking Systems

Safety Critical Elements

Another design function is to calculate,
identify & specify the numerous Safety
Critical Elements (SCE) on:
 Jacket
 Platform Modules
 Systems & Sub-systems
An SCE is any part or parts of an offshore
installation:
 The failure of which, would cause or
substantially contribute to a major incident.
 Or a component the purpose of which is to
prevent or limit the effect of a major
incident.
Examples of SCEs are…………
Safety Critical Elements
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Systems:
 Primary structure.
 Fire & water systems.
 Fire & gas detection systems.
 Hydrocarbon containment systems.
Sub-systems:
 Mooring system.
 Deluge system.
 Control panels.
Equipment:
 Mooring system main bearing.
 Fire pumps.
 Fire detection heads.
 Electrical equipment in hazardous areas.
Design Stage
During the design stage:
 Decisions are made regarding materials used.
 Chosen with careful attention to their
suitability.
 Steel is given certification regarding casting
specification & material composition.
 Plates are serial numbered & totally traceable.
Design Stage
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These documents are verified & filed as part of
the QC function:
 Materials supplied to the fabrication yards are
stored in controlled locations so that it
remains fit for purpose & traceable.
 As it is issued, certification goes with it & it’s
filed with the other documentation.

Fabrication Stage
QA & QC continue throughout the fabrication
stage:
 Welding procedures are all carefully applied &
certified.
 Concrete composition is monitored, confirmed
& certified.
 All inspection data is verified & filed with the
other documents, continuing the build up of
the QA database.
Installation Stage
Launching & Installation:
 Subjected to tight QC, & the relevant
supervision, inspection control & reporting
continue to be implemented & recorded.
 At this stage the most extensive underwater
inspection will take place.
 The inspection undertaken on the structure so
far, has been extensive & will not be as
comprehensive for the remainder of its life,
but will continue un-interrupted.
Installation Stage
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The first major in-water inspection (Base Line
Survey)
Will comprise of:
 The jacket & all underwater components,
including SCE.
 The seabed will be inspected up to 50m from
the base.
 A CP system survey will be completed,
including CP readings & an anode count to
confirm the presence & integrity of each
anode.
Installation Stage
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The Base Line Survey will confirm:
 The structure is in the correct position.
 Whether any significant damage has occurred
during installation.
 Any damage identified, is accurately reported
& recorded.
 Any significant defects are highlighted for
immediate rectification.
The structure will only be declared fit for purpose.
 When there are no reported significant defects.
 Any reported defects have been rectified.
 Re-inspected.
 Results accepted by the Duty Holder & verified
by the IVB.
The Base Line Survey will be used to evolve or
modify an ongoing inspection programme, that will
last throughout the remaining life of the structure.
In-Service Stage
The In-Service IMR Programme will ensure that
adequate monitoring is accomplished to satisfy
the requirements of:
 The Duty Holder
 Safe working practices
 To achieve verification by the IVB
The usual programme for in-service inspections
is based on a 5-year cycle.
Some items are inspected each year while others
are inspected less frequently within the 5-year
cycle.
 Each year, 20% of all SCE are inspected as a matter
of routine, so over the 5 years all will be inspected
once.
 There is always the option to change the schedule,
should the need to do this be identified.
In-Service Stage
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A typical Annual Inspection will include:
 CP survey.
 Inspection of all Risers, Conductors & Caissons.
 CVI of 20% of selected representative welds.
 MPI of 20% of selected representative welds.
 Complete GVI of the entire structure.
 Debris & Marine Growth survey.
 Scour survey.
 Items on the damage register may be monitored.
Annual inspection reports are monitored & used to update
the damage register & to modify the IMR programme.
In-Service Stage
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Damage Survey
 Damage may occur at any time due to
environmental forces, accidents, failure etc.
 It’s required that all damage or incidents
are reported - This doesn’t happen.
 Damage underwater cannot be seen unless
there is an underwater inspection
programme.
In-Service Stage
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70% of damage found offshore is primarily due to:
 Collision by shipping
 Fatigue failure
 Dropped objects
The majority of this was discovered by routine inspections.
The basis of an inspection is to report anything that
appears not in the “as made” condition.
Specific instructions may be contained in the damage
survey workbook.
Reporting
The Criteria of Non-Conformance
 Parameters issued by the Duty Holder’s eng. Dept.
 Define the limit of acceptance of any damage or defect.
 If an item is identified as not being in the as-built
condition, the CNC is referred to.
 States whether the anomaly is reportable or considered
as being within the acceptable limits.
If an anomaly is found, the CNC includes either:
 Follow-up actions that are authorised to be
implemented without further instructions.
 Has a table of technical specifications that lays
down these follow up actions.
Reporting
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The method for applying CNC is straightforward:
 When an item is identified as being outside the CNC, the
actions in the Technical Specification are implemented.
 The item & all data concerning it, is recorded &
submitted in the inspection report.
 Any authorised follow-up action is implemented & the
fact that this has been done, together with the results of
the actions taken, is recorded and reported.

The Documentation in an anomaly-based

system is:
 Normally, in the form of standardised data
sheets & is commonly on a computer-based
system.
 Engineers become familiar with one method
of presentation, saving time when reviewing
data.
 Ensures that all the required information is
included & does not rely on memory.
Reporting
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Data report sheets will be reviewed & form the basis
for:
 Follow-up or additional inspection programmes.
 Maintenance or repair projects.
 Engineering analysis required by the Duty Holder.
 Reports submitted to the IVB for verification.
On completion of review action, the reports will be
archived to become part of the QA records for the
structure.
A central feature of an anomaly based system will be a
defined Scope of Work for each inspection campaign.
This will detail:
 Extent of the inspection.
 The components to be inspected.
 The required tasks.
The Scope of Work will be contained in the workbook
issued at the start of the campaign & is part of the
contractual documentation.
Reporting
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The Workbook will contain:
 The scope of work.
 The list of inspection tasks.
 The procedures.
 The CNC.
 Relevant extracts from the
damage register.
 All the required drawings.
 Blank data sheets.
 Anomaly report forms.
 Daily report forms.
Reporting
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The Damage Register forms a crucial part of the
documentation.
 Any damage is recorded on the register, along
with the repair action taken.
 Any new damage identified during an
inspection will be added to the register.
Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Data Sheets.
 Are computer generated & the inspection will
be recorded directly onto a computer.
 It is becoming more prevalent that data
gathered during the inspection is input into a
database.
 Accessible by any authorised party, an
advantage which lends itself to engineering
analysis.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Data Sheet Design
 The first question is what is its purpose? Is it
part of a QA system?
 If it is, there must be a procedure that goes
with it, as it performs the function of applying
the requirements of the procedure & ensuring
that nothing is left out.
 Provides validation that procedural
requirements have been met.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The data sheet would, normally, become
part of the archives for the Quality System
& part of the QA.
 Is the data sheet to be included into a
computer reporting system? If so, then is
the system a database system?
 If yes, then the database will, normally,

be able to generate the data sheet & the

design will be done on the computer
through the computer programme.
If the data sheet is not part of a database but is to be a
form in a system stored on the computer, the different
fields will refer to different files in the computer.
The types of information likely to be required are:
 Does the Client or Sponsoring Engineer have to be
nominated?
 What type of inspection is it designed for?
 What is the CNC?
 What type of component is to be inspected?
 What is the extent of the inspection?
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reportingg
68
Fields on the data sheet will normally allow the following to
be recorded:
 Data sheet reference number.
 Any specialist equipment used.
 What cleaning standard.
 Inspection Controller’s name.
 Comments not covered
elsewhere.
 Anomalies.
 Drawing of the component.
 Page number.
 Customer, Client or Sponsor.
 Contracting Company.
 Location (platform).
 Type of component & ref No.
 Resource used to gather the
data (ROV, Diver).
 Dive number.
 Date.
 Signatures.
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It is a requirement that candidates produce a
short written report containing their findings
from the examination package.
The following slides will give some idea of the
contents & headings in such a report.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd

IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting

Title - Normally the specified project title with the starting &
completion date.
Signing-Off Sheet - Containing the signature of the Project
Managers & key personnel involved.
Table of Contents - Page numbers for the items in the
report.
Introduction - Gives the purpose of the report:
 Location
 The extent of the inspection or project
 The client
 The contractor company name
 The dates of the inspection
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Summary - Condensed resume of the report :
 The overall scope of the inspection.
 Listings of any anomalies outside the CNC.
Results
The body of the report that lays out all the findings & the
total extent of the inspection.
It will refer to the appendices where the raw data sheets
are contained.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Conclusions or Recommendations
 Both, either or neither of these may be included in the
report.
 Unless qualified engineers have prepared the report
these paragraphs should be omitted.
Appendices
 These are the data sheets, logs, drawings & any other
raw data gathered during the inspection.
Specimen Telex – E-mail
As part of the certification exam you are
required to:
 Produce a telex/e-mail précis of the Daily
Progress Report (DPR).
 It should be in a standard format, similar to a
telex between offshore installations/vessels &
the client’s onshore base.
 Although e-mail has largely replaced telex for
such communications the telex format persists
throughout the industry.
Specimen Telex – E-mail
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 Using the data gathered during the classroom
exercise, highlight any defects as urgent.
 It is normal practice for the operator’s
representative onshore to be informed
immediately by telex/e-mail of any significant
defects or anomalies.
 This exercise should require approx. one side
of an A4 sheet.
Specimen Telex – E-mail
Copyright © TWI Ltd

Specimen Telex / e-mail

From: Student’s name, Vessel/Platform name.
To: Names of all those to whom the telex/e-mail is to go.
Date:
Subject:
AA) Item 1 ………………………………..
BB) Item 2 ………………………………..
CC) Item 3 ………………………………..
DD) Item 4 etc.etc……………………….
(Items will typically include vessel location & position i.e.
platform name & which side vessel working on. Followed by a
summary of work carried out during the preceding 24hrs. Results
of inspections, Defects found, anticipated next 24hr work scope)
Regards
Student’s name
Reporting
Verbal Reports
 Normally concerned with diver intervention.
 Frequently follow a question & answer
scenario.
 The topside asking specific questions to
which, the diver responds.
Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
A radio procedure approach is adopted
 The diver is the control station.
 Speak plainly as the diver’s speech is
difficult to understand because of poor
amplification.
 With sat divers it can be difficult, as their
speech is via an un-scrambler because of
the distortion to the voice pitch caused by
the helium.
Reporting
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Always:
 Use correct terminology
 Maintain a fluent flow of speech
 Decide what to say before you speak
 RSVP - Rhythm, Speed, Volume, Pitch
The introduction will include answers to:
 Who is speaking?
 Where is the inspection site?
 What actions are being completed?
 When is the report being made?
 CP Survey Reporting
CP Survey reporting requirements:
 Visual assessment of anode condition.
 % of anode wastage.
 Sacrificial anode stub integrity.
 ICCP cable-duct integrity & electrode
connection.
 Marine growth build up on any anodes.
 Metallic debris in contact with the structure.
 CP readings at specified sites.
 Photographs of representative anodes.
14
Copyright © TWI Ltd

Reporting
No! I said, “Send a 12 inch Clamp or a 3 inch plug!”
Copyright © TWI Ltd
CP Survey reporting requirements:
 Visual assessment of anode condition.
 % of anode wastage.
 Sacrificial anode stub integrity.
 ICCP cable-duct integrity & electrode
connection.
 Marine growth build up on any anodes.
 Metallic debris in contact with the structure.
 CP readings at specified sites.
 Photographs of representative anodes.
CP Survey Reporting
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Coating Inspections:
 Note the % present of topcoat, primer & bare metal.
 Note any blistering, burst them - if client permits &
try to collect a sample of any deposit.
 Assess the condition of the steel under any blister.
 Note the % of any paint cracking, sagging, wrinkling
or flaking - with the extent.
If inspecting Monel, look closely for any breaks
or deformation, in the Monel surface.
CVI Reporting
CVI Procedure.
 GVI to assess any gross damage & MG
build-up.
 Clean to SA2½ 75mm either side of the
weld.
 Establish the datum - position a tape
measure & mark up the clock positions.
 Measure & record the overall weld length.
 Complete the CVI.
Recording Methods
Recording methods can be simple or complex:
 Scratchboards.
 Sketches.
 Photography.
 Video.
 Radiography.
 Casts.
 EMD with computer recording.
 Sampling.
Qualifications
CSWIP Grade 3.1U Diver Inspector.
This diver inspector will be proficient in:
 Visual inspection
 Use of CCTV in HMTV or hand-held mode.
 Taking still photographs.
 Taking CP readings.
 Wall thickness readings using a DTM.
CSWIP Grade 3.2U Diver Inspector
This diver inspector will be proficient in:
 All the 3.1U Diver Inspector Proficiencies.
 The application & interpretation of MPI using:
 Insulated closed coils.
 Parallel coil loops.
 Permanent magnets.
 Electro-magnets.
 Current flow prods.
 The ability to use hand-held grinding tools to
carry out remedial grinding.
 Profile welds & surface-breaking anomalies.
Qualifications
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CSWIP Grade 3.3U ROV Inspector
This ROV Pilot will be proficient in:
 The use of CCTV in ROV deployed mode.
 Taking CP readings.
 Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings
using the ROV probe technique.
 Handling & managing data.
 Knowledge of the capabilities & limitations of
underwater vehicles.
Qualifications
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CSWIP Grade 3.4U Underwater Inspection
Controller
The inspection controller will have knowledge of
all & be proficient in some of the following:
 Visual Inspection.
 The use of CCTV in hat-mounted, hand-held &
ROV deployment.
 Taking still photographs.
 Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings
using an ultrasonic digital thickness meter.
 The application & interpretation of MPI.
Qualifications
Copyright © TWI Ltd
CSWIP 3.4U Underwater Inspection
Controller
The inspection controller will have knowledge of
all & be proficient in some of the following:
 Handling & managing data.
 Knowledge of the capabilities & limitations of
underwater vehicles.
 Knowledge of advanced methods of NDT.
 Knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of
diver inspectors.
 Knowledge of how to plan & schedule inspection
projects.
 Knowledge of the application of QMS.
Qualifications
Copyright © TWI Ltd
The Inspection Controller
Must be capable of developing close working
relationships with all inspection staff involved
with any inspection project.
Some staff will be senior engineers with the
operator of the structure & tact & diplomacy
must be exercised on occasion.
Reporting
Equipment used during an inspection programme must be
certified to conform with legal & QA requirements.
 Electric equipment should be tested 6 monthly.
 Electric equipment must be tested for safety each time
it is used - RCD’s should be tested daily.
 All inspection equipment should be calibrated before &
after each use.
 Competent person calibrate all electric equipment at
intervals prescribed & certify this fact.
Reporting
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Good planning & briefings are the difference between
success & failure with any project.
 It leads to efficient, inspection activities that are crucial,
in ensuring that the tasks are completed as quickly as
possible, without having to go back.
 The correct items are inspected to the correct standard.
 Personnel involved are focused, motivated & sufficiently
briefed & skilled to be able to recognise any defects & to
apply the correct actions to them.
Reporting
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Inspection Activities in an Anomaly Based
System
These activities are fundamental in any anomaly
based reporting system, as:
 Any items inspected in ‘real time’ will not be
subjected to any secondary inspection.
 Anything missed will remain undiscovered
until the next scheduled inspection.
Reporting
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Real time data gathering means that the
personnel on the job inspect & assess the
components under inspection.
 Items judged to be outside the CNC will be
flagged up & recorded in real time by video,
photography or electronic means.
 This data may then be re-evaluated later, for
second opinions or follow-up analysis.
 The crucial point is that data is only submitted
if it is judged to be anomalous at the time it is
inspected.
Decommissioning
When the fields become depleted the various
platforms, pipelines & seabed completions will be
removed.
The QA & QC will continue throughout this
process, to ensure that everything is actually
removed & to verify that the ocean floor is left
clear of any debris.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
Planning Requirements - The overall campaign
will be planned months in advance, whereas
the daily tasks must be planned on a weekly &
daily basis.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
The Inspection Coordinator will need to consider at least:
 The actual task requirements.
 Procedural requirements regarding personnel
qualifications, specialised equipment or cleaning tasks.
 Are hot work permits or restricted access permits
required.
 Access restraints.
 DSV operating parameter restrictions.
 Vessel movements.
 Any helicopter operations.
 Supply boat schedules.
IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reporting
 The weather.
 Any time
constraints.
 Any task
priorities.
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IMR, QA/QC, Recording & Reportin

The plan will then contain:
 The location, platform face, identification & depth of the
items to be inspected in the next shift.
 The personnel qualifications required.
 The estimated time per task.
 Known restrictions, platform crane operations or helicopter
operations etc.
 Any items that must be completed at night, e.g. MPI.
 Any ongoing tasks.
 How much work is outstanding, at what depths, on which
platform faces.
 Any follow up work generated by reported anomalies
according to the CNC.
 Contingency plans in case changes have to be made due to
weather etc.
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Briefing
Once the plan is agreed, their line management can brief
the various team members - for example:
 Location - Where is the component?
 Local situation - Are there any obstructions to the site?
 Is it on the damage register?
 When was it last inspected?
 What resources are available to complete the task?
 Ensure that everyone knows what the task or tasks are.
 What specific jobs everyone has to do.
 Vessel moves or other factors that will impact on the
tasks.
 Confirm the lines of communication for reports or
questions.
 Section 18
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
18 Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
18.1 Cleaning
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures.
1- Prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT.
2- Remove excessive marine growth, debris or other fouling.

18.1.1 HP water jets

HP water jets are widely used offshore. These methods of cleaning have potential to
harm the operator and, therefore, some safety considerations must be included.
Safety considerations are:
 Never block or wire the trigger open.
 When in use never point at anything other than the area to be cleaned.
 Keep clear of any retro-jets.
 Never get any part of the body in front of the jet.
 Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition and are
correctly fitted and tightened. Whip-checks should be fitted to all joints.
 If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system because of
circulation in the water.
 If grit penetrates the suit or gloves under pressure take medical advice immediately.
 Treat the equipment with respect; it is capable of maiming or even killing if not handled
correctly.
 All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater use.

18.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) advice

The following is the DMAC advice on managing any accident by using this equipment.
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the extent of the
injury beneath and the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities of water may have
punctured the skin, flesh or organs through a very small hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture, particularly
if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent infection is particularly
important in abdominal injuries.

18.2.1 Management of any injury

The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or absence
of infection. Even though the injury seems trivial on the surface and the patient has no
complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for medical examination as quickly as
possible.
In a remote location, where surgical examination is not immediately possible, first aid
measures are confined to dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the
development of further complaints over four or five days.
The development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest the injury is serious,
together with the persistence or occurrence of pain. On evacuation, the diver should
carry the following card, which outlines the possible nature of the injury.
This person has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500psi (1000 bar,) with a jet velocity of
900mph (1440kph.)
Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organisms occurring at low temperatures have
been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens such as those found in sewage.
Bacterial swabs and blood cultures may, therefore, be helpful.
18.3 Standard of surface finish
This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO 8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1:1989 and BS
EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001, BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1:1996.
The specifications from these standards normally applied offshore are as follows:
SA1: Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection).
SA2: Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion products.
SA2½: Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment, resulting in a dull matt metal
finish. This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as it leaves a matt
surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that does not unduly reflect light. It is an
excellent surface for all NDT.
SA3: Very thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most inspection
but will reflect light and is, therefore, not such a good surface if video and photography
are employed. Most commonly used for A-scan ultrasonic inspections.
18.3.1 Area to be cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a valid
inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in unnecessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA2½ should include the weld cap and an area
75mm either side of it, measured from the weld toe. Also, an area large enough to allow
access for the inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA1
either side of the weld, see Figure 18.
18.4 Profile grinding
A metal subjected to alternating stresses in the elastic range, can after a certain number
of cycles, develop surface cracking. If the metal continues to be exposed to these cyclical
stresses, it will ultimately fail.
For welded structures, their fatigue life is reduced over that of plain metal:-
1- Due to the profile of the weld
2- By the presence of flaws within the weld and the heat affected zone.
The angle between the weld reinforcement and the parent material concentrates the
stresses and the greater the angle the poorer the fatigue life of the weld, with failure
most likely to occur at the weld toe.
Flaws ‫ عيوب‬within the finished weld will also concentrate stresses, with planar flaws
such as lack of fusion having the greatest effect.
For welded joints, one of the commonest flaws is undercut in the toe of a weld.
As the weld profile may already be concentrating stresses, the presence of even minute
undercut in this area will increase this further.
A number of post weld methods such as grinding, hammer peening, shot peening and TIG
and plasma re-melting are available to improve the fatigue strength of welded joints.
Practically grinding equipment is commonly available on-site and therefore is a readily
applicable technique. Care should be taken however as heavy disc grinding can result in
score marks and it has been shown that fatigue cracks can initiate from these if they are
perpendicular to the direction of applied stress.
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structure’s life as a
means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have process faults, such
as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc, spatter or any other
fabrication flaws.
The reason to profile grinding to in-service stage for any structure:
 The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during MPI or EMD
investigations are actually cracks.
 The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed during inspection
activities.
 The practice of removing identified notches or stress raisers discovered during the
normal IMR cycle.
The need to employ profile grinding may be to:
 Remove stress raisers caused by remedial grinding.
 Remove stress raisers discovered during the normal IMR cycle.
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised, either by the CNC
or by instructions from the Duty Holder’s Engineering Department, via the Onsite Client
Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be given in a written
instruction. When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken, it will be authorised either by the CNC or in writing
from the Duty Holder’s Eng. Dept.

18.4.1 Remedial grinding

The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features are
identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the annual IMR
programme.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any indications to a
maximum depth of 2mm, in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a requirement to re-
inspect after each step to determine whether the indication has been ground out or
not.
The need to employ remedial grinding may be:
 To establish whether indications identified during MPI or EMD are actually cracks.
 To grind out any cracks that are confirmed during an inspection.
The Onshore Engineering Department, in accordance with their requirements and
procedures, will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains after the full
2mm depth is reached (Figure 18.3).
 Section 19
Intervention Techniques
Used Underwater
19 Intervention Techniques Used Underwater
19.1 How inspection data is gathered underwater
One of the first considerations for any underwater IMR programme has to be how is the
data to be gathered? There are several intervention techniques employed offshore which
include:
 Divers.
 Various types of ROV.
 Remote sensors and cameras.
 Autonomous unmanned vehicles (AUV).
 Manned submersibles.
These intervention systems will be considered from the perspective of the advantages
and disadvantages of each and any restrictions with the particular method. The more
important physics that apply to any underwater intervention technique will be beneficial
in understanding the restrictions and safety requirements for the various techniques.
19.2 Pressure
The pressure increase by 0.1b for every 1m descent. The SI unit of measure for pressure
is the Bar (b) (1bar = 14.7psi).
19.2.1 Absolute pressure
In physics pressure is measured in terms of absolute (Abs) pressure, which for the
practical purposes considered here is atmospheric pressure (1b) plus the relative
pressure being exerted by the column of water.
19.2.2 Gauge or relative pressure
In practical everyday measurements of pressure, gauge pressure is normally considered.
This is a direct reading of the pressure being exerted on the measuring pressure gauge
without taking into account the atmospheric pressure.
19.2.3 Pressure increase with water depth
For every 10m descent into the ocean the pressure will increase by 1 bar. Table
19.1 illustrates this.

19.3 The gas laws

All gases react physically in the same manner and there are a set of Gas Laws that state
these reactions. There are two major factors that affect gases:
 Pressure.  Temperature.
The volume of any gas will be affected by changes to either of these factors.
19.3.1 Boyle’s law
Boyle’s Law is the basic gas law and states, provided the temperature remains constant,
as the pressure acting on a gas increases the volume of the gas will vary inversely and
proportionally.
This Law is very important when considering any gas filled item that is going to be
immersed. It is especially important for divers as their diving suits, lungs and ears are
gas filled spaces that react to this Law. Table 19.2 illustrates the principle.

19.3.2 Charles’ law

Charles’ Law states that, either the pressure or the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the change in absolute temperature.
This means that as the temperature increases or decreases either the pressure or
volume of a measured amount of gas will vary in direct proportion to the change in
temperature.
19.3.3 Dalton’s law
Daltons Law states that, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial
pressures of each constituent gas in the mix.
This Gas Law is important to divers because the partial pressure of a gas determines its
toxicity to the body. Even oxygen becomes toxic at elevated partial pressures. Because
of this the international maritime contractors association (IMCA) sets a limit for the
partial pressure of oxygen in a breathing mixture of gasses to 1.5ba while the diver is in
the water. Table 19.3 applies.

19.3.4 Henry’s law

This Gas Law states that, the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.
This means that if 1L of gas is dissolved in a liquid at a pressure 1ba, 6l of gas will
dissolve at a pressure of 6ba.
19.4 Important gases
The gases that are important when considering underwater intervention techniques are
listed below with some comments regarding each one.
Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen is an odourless, tasteless, gas that is necessary to support life. It is not
combustible but it supports combustion. If the partial pressure of O 2 in a breathing
mixture of gases rises above 1.8 ba it becomes toxic.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
This is a waste product of metabolism and combustion. A maximum of 20millibar
(0.02ba) pp CO2 may be tolerated in a breathing mix.
19.4.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
This gas is an extremely toxic by-product of combustion. If it is breathed in haemoglobin
has approximately 200 times greater affinity for it than oxygen. As haemoglobin cells in
the blood transport oxygen round the body this is a serious possible toxic affect. The
concentration of CO in a breathing gas can be no more than 1ppm (0.000001ba) and,
preferably, should be zero.
19.4.2 Nitrogen (N2)
Nitrogen is an inert, colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that makes up approximately
79% of the atmosphere. At an elevated partial pressure of approximately 3.16b (which is
reached at a water depth of 30m) N2 becomes narcotic. The narcotic effects of the gas
then get progressively worse as the pp increases. This is one reason for replacing N 2 with
Helium in breathing gases used below a depth of 50m.
19.5 Buoyancy
Anything that is put into the sea will experience the effects of buoyancy, which is stated
in Archimedes Principle.
Archimedes principle
Any body wholly or partially submerged in a liquid will experience an up-thrust equal to
the volume of liquid displaced.
This is an important principle for any underwater intervention technique, ROV,
submersible or diver. There are three possible states of buoyancy arising from this
principle.
Positive buoyancy where the up-thrust
from the displaced liquid is greater than
the mass of the object.
Neutral buoyancy where the up-thrust is
equal to the mass of the object.
Negative buoyancy where the up-thrust
is less than the mass of the body. Figure
19.1 illustrates these three states.

19.6 Air diving

Air diving is limited to a depth of 50m, for two reasons. Firstly mainly because of the
effects of nitrogen narcosis, this phenomenon manifests itself on divers going deeper
than 30m. The actual effect is very similar to drunkenness, loss of cognitive sense and a
general feeling of euphoria. This is a dangerous state for any diver to be in as it
interferes with the ability to make rational decisions that may affect the diver’s wellbeing
or even his life. The second reason is decompression because the deeper a diver goes
the greater the time penalty that has to be paid for safe decompression.
In the UK there are also 6 approved codes of practice (ACoP) that lay down specific
requirements for different styles of diving, these arise out of the UK legislation embodied
in the Health and Safety at Work Act as stated in the Statutory Instrument 1997 SI 2776,
The Diving at Work Regulations 1997. The six ACoP are:
1 Commercial diving projects offshore.
2 Commercial diving projects inshore.
3 Media diving projects.
4 Recreational diving projects.
5 Scientific and archaeological diving projects.
6 Police diving.
19.6.1 Decompression requirements
As a diver descends, the air being breathed is delivered at higher pressure the deeper
the descent. Henry’s Law applies and the greater the pressure the greater the quantity of
dissolved gas there will be in the bloodstream. While the elevated pressure is maintained
the extra dissolved gas will remain in solution.
However, when the pressure is reduced during the ascent back to the surface the extra
dissolved gas must come out of solution. The actual quantity of dissolved gas is
determined by time as well as pressure. The elevated pressure determines the total
quantity of extra gas there can be in solution, but this quantity cannot be instantly
dissolved. The process takes time for the total quantity to build up. The actual gas that
causes decompression problems is N2, which is
the major constituent of air. This means that the
excess in the bloodstream can be naturally
expired, provided that the rate of ascent is
controlled.
This is the basis of decompression. The actual
danger is that if the rate of ascent is not
controlled the excess N2 in the bloodstream will
come out of solution spontaneously by forming
gas bubbles. These gas bubbles may collect at
joints, where the pressure they exert causes
pain, in tissue where the pressure tears and
permanently causes damage, or in the heart
where the effect is coronary arrest. The danger
is avoided by carefully monitoring a diver’s
depth and time during the descent and the
working time. Standard tables are then applied
to ensure that a safe ascent rate is applied.
If a diver spends a short time at a given depth it
will be possible to allow a direct ascent to the
surface at the specified rate of ascent without
any stops at predetermined depths. This is a no
stop dive. Where this no stop limit is exceeded a
decompression stop (or stops) is required.
Typical decompression dive profiles are shown
in Figure 19.2 and 19.3.

19.7.2 SDDE
In the North Sea this method of diving can be employed to a maximum depth of 50m.
The diver is connected to the surface with an umbilical that contains his surface supplied
air, a communication wire connection, a pneumo-fathometer and hot water hose when
required. The diver still carries an air cylinder on his back but this is for emergency use
only.
This style of diving usually deploys the diver from the deck in a basket. The basket
provides safe access and egress from the water and will have an emergency reserve air
supply built in. Figure 19.5 refers.

19.7.3 Wet bell deployment

An alternative method for deployment of
an SDDE diver is a wet bell. This is an
adaptation to a basket that improves
safety further by adding a safety air
bubble in the top of the bell and more on
board gas. This provides a safe haven in the water as well as safe access and egress. The
stand-by diver is deployed in the wet bell with the diver also enhancing safety. Figure
19.6 refers.

19.7.4 Mini-bell
The mini-bell is submersible decompression chamber, the same as a saturation bell. The
difference is that the gas supply is air. The diver and the standby diver both lock in at the
surface on the DSV and are then deployed to the job site. At the job site the diver locks
out and is supplied with all services from the bell. On completion of the task the diver
returns to the bell and the chamber lock is closed. The bell is returned to the surface
where it is locked onto the deck chamber complex. The divers both transfer to the
chamber and complete their decompression. This method avoids the surface interval
normally associated with surface decompression.
19.8 Saturation diving
This form of diving relies on the fact that once the bloodstream is saturated with inert
gas the diver may remain in that state as long as required but still only has to pay the
same decompression time penalty whether the time is one day or 28 days (which is the
normal saturation time). The style of diving is called saturation as the divers are
saturated with inert gas at the elevated
pressure until they are decompressed. To
avoid problems with narcosis the inert gas
used is helium. In the North Sea this form
of diving must be employed for any depth
greater than 50m. It has become normal
practice to employ saturation diving
techniques as shallow as 30m and, at
times, up to 20m depending on the actual
task and availability of saturation divers.
The divers are locked into the saturation
chambers before the dive and the
breathing mixture is changed from air to
heliox. The divers are then deployed to and
recovered from the dive site in a
submersible chamber, the bell and remain
at elevated pressure for the entire 28-day
period.
The advantage with using this technique is
that a diver can be kept on the task for
approximately 8 hours at a time. The bell
can remain locked off the system for 8
hours which includes travelling time and
each diver in the two man bell can do up to
4 hours on the task.

19.8.1 Diver heating

When Helium is used to replace N2 in the breathing mixture because of its greater
thermal conductivity (approximately 7 times greater) it presents a problem. The divers’
loose body heat much more quickly breathing heliox and, therefore, much more attention
has to be paid to heating. The requirements are:
Diving depth less than 50m extra heating not required.
Diving depth 50-150m suit heating must be supplied.
Diving depth >150m suit and gas heating must be supplied.
19.9 Advantages and disadvantages of divers for inspection tasks
The advantages and disadvantages of employing divers for inspection tasks are
summarised in Table 19.4
19.10 ROVs
ROVs have been used extensively for at least the last 40 years and developments
proceed as fast as technology allows. There is an agreed classification for different types
of vehicles laid down by IMCA Guidance Note 051. There are 5 classes of ROV noted in
this document.
Class 1 pure observation
This type of vehicle is capable of video observation only.
Class 2 observation with payload option
This type of vehicle can carry additional equipment as well as video cameras, such as CP
probes, sonar transponders, FMD units and similar devices.
Class 3 work-class vehicle
These vehicles are large with manipulators and space for additional equipment. They are
fitted with multiplexing facilities to allow for numerous additional instruments and tools
to be fitted. The umbilical will also have spare conductors for this same purpose.
Class 4 towed or bottom crawling vehicles
The towed type has no propulsion but may be manoeuvred by vanes. The bottom crawler
has tracks or wheels and drives along the seabed.
Class 5 prototype or development vehicle
These are vehicles under development or special purpose vehicles that do not fit into the
other categories.
Appendix 3 lists, with some comments, different examples of these various classes of
vehicles.
ROVs are deployed from the surface support vessel and fly to the job site where they are
manoeuvred around using thruster power. There are a number of factors that affect the
deployment regarding the support vessel itself, the method of deployment, the work task
and the vehicle class and configuration.

19.10.1 Hydrodynamic forces

The hydrodynamic forces may be considered as being:
 Wave action.
 Tidal effects.
 Currents.
 Wind.
All of these effects will affect both the vessel and the ROV. The vessel will have a
designed thruster configuration that will determine its actual operating parameters.
However, the ship’s master and watch officers will get to know their vessel and will be
able to position it to its best capabilities within its design parameters. Generally
speaking, ROV deployment is possible in slightly more severe weather conditions than air
divers.
19.10.2 Effects on the ROV
The wave and wind action will initially affect the launching and recovery of the vehicle.
The general methods for launching an ROV are:
 Articulated HIAB type crane.
 A-frame.
 Fixed deployment cursor or guide wire system.
 Crane and quick release hook.
19.10.3 HIAB type launching system
This method does not require much deck space so has an advantage on a smaller vessel.
There is easy access to the vehicle for maintenance or repair. A docking mechanism may
be fitted, which allows for a smoother launch and recovery and the mechanism responds
quite quickly and is therefore handy in marginal launch and recovery operations. This
system is usually limited in use to Class 2 vehicles.
19.10.4 A-frame launching system
This system may be mounted on a skid, mounted over the stern of the vessel or mounted
over the side of the vessel depending on the weather-keeping characteristics of the
support vessel. There is easy access to the vehicle for maintenance and repair. A docking
mechanism may be fitted. The vehicle is suspended from the frame during launch and
recovery. During marginal conditions the ROV may develop a swing that risks damaging
it and the A-frame itself, which tends to limit the weather parameters. This system may
be used with any class of ROV.
19.10.5 Fixed deployment cursor or guide wire system
This system is normally installed in a moon pool on a purpose designed support vessel.
The whole system thus becomes dedicated to the vehicle in use. The launch and
recovery may be possible in somewhat more severe weather conditions than the other
systems. Normally, purpose designed facilities are incorporated to allow easy access for
maintenance and repair. There may be an issue in the event of the vehicle becoming
dead in the water, as it may not be possible to recover it to the cursor. This system is
normally reserved for large Class 3 ROVs.
19.10.6 Crane and quick release hook
A go-getcha or line release hook is attached to the ship’s crane and the ROV is lifted over
the side and put in the water, once launched, the hook is released and the vehicle is free
to dive. The system does not have to be installed on the support vessel and all that is
required is a suitable crane. There is easy access to the vehicle for maintenance and
repair and the vehicle can be placed anywhere on deck in reach of the crane. This
system is more weather dependant than the other methods.
19.10.7 Vehicle manoeuvrability affected by hydrodynamic forces
The vehicle thruster configuration will determine how it can react to the hydrodynamic
forces acting on it. There will be a maximum power output available for thrusters and
each thruster will also have a maximum power consumption and output. The vehicle has
to maintain position in three dimensions and try to deal with any wave surge when
operating at shallow depths. This may prove impossible at times and in marginal weather
conditions there is a limit to how shallow any vehicle can operate even though it may be
safe to launch it. Figure 19.9
19.10.8 Umbilical or tether management system (TMS)
The greatest drag on the ROV will be due to the umbilical or tether. This in turn means
that the greatest consideration must be given to how to minimise this.
Any currents at the work site will have marked effects on the tether, to the extent that all
thruster power may be required on the fore and aft thrusters just to overcome the drag
force on the tether. A TMS may be a top hat or garage system. Both have advantages
and disadvantages. The top hat can recover a dead vehicle better but the reeling system
sometimes fouls up. The garage gives better protection to the vehicle but may interfere
with some maintenance tasks.
On the other hand any TMS will add complications to the handling of the vehicle, while an
umbilical only requires a winch and keeps the system simple.
The advantages of a TMS are:
 There is less drag on the tether.
 The operational footprint can be increased.
 The weather window may be increased.
 There is less likelihood of fouling the umbilical in the ship’s thrusters.
 The ROV will not be so subjected to heave once released from the TMS.

When working on a pipeline the ROV gains

from using a TMS by:
 Reducing umbilical drag.
 Reducing heave.

 Avoiding being pulled off during vessel

manoeuvres.
When working on a structure the advantages
are:
 Easier penetration into the structure.
 Less heave at shallow depths.

Better manoeuvrability as the tether can be

neutrally buoyant causing little drag Figure
19.10 refers.

Advantages and disadvantages of an ROV as an inspection tool.

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages for using an ROV to collect
inspection data. These are summarised in Table 19.5.
How Inspection Data is Gathered
Underwater
One of the first considerations for any
underwater IMR programme is how the
details are to be gathered:-
 Divers.
 Various types of ROV.
 Remote sensors and cameras.
 Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (AUV).
 Manned submersibles.
These intervention systems will be
considered from the perspective of
advantages and disadvantages of each and
any restrictions with the particular method.
 A review of the more important physics that
apply to underwater intervention techniques
will be beneficial in understanding the
restrictions and safety requirements of each.

Pressure Underwater
Pressure:
 The increase in the pressure exerted on anything
that is submerged is increasing by 0.1b (100mb) for
every 1m descent. The SI unit of measure for
pressure is the Bar (b) (1bar = 14.7psi).
Absolute Pressure:
 In physics pressure is measured in terms of Absolute
(Abs) pressure, which for the practical purposes
considered here is atmospheric pressure (1bar) plus
the relative pressure being exerted by the column of
water.
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Gauge or Relative Pressure
In practical everyday measurements of pressure, Gauge
pressure is normally considered. This is a direct reading of
the pressure being exerted on the measuring pressure
gauge without taking into account the atmospheric
pressure.
Some chamber gauges can be adjusted manually to take
changing air pressure into account.
Pressure Increase With Water Depth
For every 10m descent into the ocean the pressure
increase is 1 bar.
Pressure Underwater
The Gas Laws
All gasses react physically in the same
manner and there is a set of Gas Laws that
state these reactions.
There are two major factors that affect gases:
 Pressure
 Temperature
The volume of any gas will be affected by
changes to either of these factors.
Boyle’s LawCopyright © TWI Ltd
Boyle’s Law is the basic Gas Law and states:
‘Provided the temperature remains constant, as the
pressure acting on a gas increases, the volume of the
gas will vary inversely and proportionally’
This Law is very important when considering any
gas filled item that is going to be immersed. It is
especially important for divers as their diving
suits, lungs and ears are gas filled spaces that
react to this Law.
harles’ Law states that:
’Either the pressure or the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the change in absolute temperature’.
Charles’ Law - Dalton’s Law
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Dalton’s Law states that:
‘The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of
the partial pressures of each constituent gas in the mix’.
This Law is very important to divers as the partial pressure
of a gas determines its toxicity to the body. Even oxygen
becomes toxic at elevated partial pressures. Because of
this, IMCA sets a limit for the PPO2 in a breathing mixture
to 1.5ba while the diver is in the wate
Henry’s Law
Henry’s Gas Law states that:
 ’The amount of gas that will dissolve in a
liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of that gas’.
Important Gases
Oxygen (O2) is an odourless, tasteless, gas
that is necessary to support life. It is not
combustible but it supports combustion. If
the partial pressure of O2 in a breathing
mixture of gases rises above 1.8 ba it
becomes toxic.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is a waste product of
metabolism and combustion. A maximum of
20millibar (0.02 ba) partial pressure of CO2
may be tolerated in a breathing mix.
Important Gases
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is an extremely toxic
by-product of combustion. If it is breathed in,
haemoglobin has approximately 200 times
greater affinity for it than oxygen.
As haemoglobin cells in the blood transport
oxygen round the body, this is a serious
possible toxic affect.
The concentration of CO in a breathing gas
can be no more than 1 ppm (0.000001 ba)
and preferably should be zero.
Important Gases
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Nitrogen (N2) is an inert, colourless,
odourless, tasteless gas that makes up
approximately 79% of the atmosphere.
At an elevated partial pressure of
approximately 3.16b (which is reached at a
water depth of 30m) N2 becomes narcotic.
The narcotic effects of the gas then get
progressively worse as the pp increases. This
is one reason for replacing N2 with Helium in
breathing gases used below a depth of 50m.
Buoyancy
Archimedes Principle:
 Any body wholly or partially submerged in a liquid will
experience an up-thrust equal to the volume of liquid
displaced.
This is critical to a diver as he must achieve
neutral buoyancy so that he is not struggling to
stay down or to ascend.
This is achieved by using lead weights and
buoyancy aids in his suit.
ROV’s have similar buoyancy chambers built in.
Approved Codes of Practice (ACoP
In the UK there are 6 (ACoP) that lay down specific
requirements for different styles of diving.
These arise out of the UK Legislation embodied in the Health
and Safety at Work Act as stated in the SI 2776, The Diving
at Work Regulations 1997.
The 6 ACoP are:-
 Commercial diving projects offshore.
 Commercial diving projects inshore.
 Media diving projects.
 Recreational diving projects.
 Scientific and archaeological diving projects.
 Police diving.
Air Diving
Air Diving is limited to a depth of 50m for two reasons:
 Firstly, because of the effects of Nitrogen Narcosis,
which manifests itself on divers going deeper than
30m.
 The effect is very similar to drunkenness, loss of
cognitive sense and a general feeling of euphoria.
 This is a dangerous state for any diver to be in as it
interferes with the ability to make rational decisions
that may affect the diver’s wellbeing or even life.
 The second reason is decompression, because the
deeper a diver goes the greater the time penalty that
has to be paid for safe decompression.
Deployment Methods
Air divers may be deployed using different
methods.
 Self-contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus (SCUBA).
 Surface Demand Diving Equipment (SDDE).
 Wet Bell.
 Mini-bell.
Deployment Methods
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SDDE (Surface Demand Diving Equipment)
In the North Sea this method is employed to a
max. depth of 50m.
The diver is connected to the surface by an
‘umbilical’ that contains his surface supplied
air, a communication wire, a pneumofathometer,
a hot water hose when required,
plus electrical cables for the TV camera and
light.
SDDE (Surface Demand Diving Equipment).
Modern umbilicals have an inherent load-bearing
capability; also the diver still carries an air
cylinder (bailout bottle) on his back but this is
for emergency use only.
This style of diving usually deploys the diver
from the deck in a basket. The basket provides
safe access and egress from the water and will
have an emergency reserve air supply built in.
Wet Bell Deployment
An alternative method for the deployment of an SDDE
diver is a wet bell.
This is an adaptation to a basket that further improves
safety by adding an air bubble in the top of the bell and
more ‘on board’ gas.
This provides a safe haven in the water as well as safe
access and egress.
The stand-by diver is deployed in the wet bell with the
diver, which also enhances safety.
Mini-bel
A mini-bell is a submersible decompression chamber the
same as a saturation bell. The difference is that the gas
supply is air.
The diver and the standby diver both lock in at the surface
on the DSV and are then deployed to the job site.
At the job site the diver locks out and is supplied with all
services from the bell.
On completion of the task the diver returns to the bell and
the chamber lock is closed.
Deployment Methods
Copyright © TWI Ltd
The bell is returned to the surface where it is
locked onto the deck chamber complex.
The divers both transfer to the chamber and
complete their decompression.
This method avoids the surface interval
normally associated with surface
decompression.
Deployment Methods
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Saturation Diving
This form of diving relies on the fact that once the
bloodstream is saturated with inert gas, the diver may
remain in that state as long as required but still only has
to pay the same decompression time penalty whether the
time is one day or 28 days (which is the normal saturation
time).
It’s called saturation as the divers are saturated with inert
gas at the elevated pressure until they are decompressed.
To avoid problems with narcosis the inert gas used is
Helium.
Deployment Methods
Copyright © TWI Ltd
In the North Sea this form of diving must be employed
for any depth greater than 50m.
It has become normal practice to employ saturation
diving techniques as shallow as 30m and at times up to
20m depending on the actual task and availability of
saturation divers.
The divers are locked into the saturation chambers
before the dive and the breathing mixture is changed
from air to Heliox.
Deployment Methods
Copyright © TWI Ltd
The divers are then deployed to and recovered from the
dive site in a submersible chamber, the ‘bell’ and remain
at elevated pressure for the entire 28-day period.
The advantage with using this technique is that a diver can
be kept on the task for approximately 8 hours at a time.
The bell can remain locked off the system for 8 hours,
which includes travelling time and each diver in the two
man bell can do up to 4 hours on the task.
Intervention Techniques Used
Underwater
The diver is still limited by decompression consideration
however, in that there is an upward excursion limit that
cannot be exceeded.
The diver will effectively be decompressing if he makes an
upward excursion to a shallower depth, which is at a lesser
pressure than his working depth.
The actual upward excursion that is permissible on any
dive is, therefore, tightly controlled.
Intervention Techniques Used
Underwater
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Also, if the diver goes deeper, there is a
decompression consideration in that the saturation
chamber on deck is held at a pressure equivalent to
what is called the ‘storage depth’.
The divers may go deeper than this but again, only
within fixed parameters, if they go deeper than
allowed, the deck chambers must be blown down to a
greater depth to accommodate the divers on their
return.
Intervention Techniques Used
Underwater
Copyright © TWI Ltd
If there is a requirement for a saturation
diver to work at different depths during his
dive, (called a ‘bell run’), the shallow upward
excursions must be completed first.
The diver is then worked down to the deeper
tasks.
Diver Heating
When Helium is used to replace N2 in the breathing mixture,
its greater thermal conductivity (approximately 7 times
greater) presents a problem.
The divers lose body heat much more quickly breathing Heliox
and therefore, much more attention has to be paid to heating.
The requirements are:
 Diving depth less than 50m extra heating not required.
 Diving depth 50m to 150m suit heating must be
supplied.
 Diving depth >150m suit and gas heating must be
supplied.
ROV’s
IMCA Guidance Note 051 states that there are 5
classes of ROV.
(Class 1) Pure Observation
This type of vehicle is capable of video observation
only.
(Class 2) Observation with Payload Option
This type of vehicle can carry additional equipment as
well as video cameras, such as CP probes, sonar
transponders, FMD units and similar devices.
(Class 3) Work-class Vehicle
These vehicles are large with manipulators
and space for additional equipment.
They are fitted with multiplexing facilities to
allow for numerous additional instruments
and tools to be fitted.
The umbilical will also have spare conductors
for this same purpose.
ROV’s
Copyright © TWI Ltd
(Class 4) Towed or Bottom Crawling Vehicles.
The towed type has no propulsion but may be
manoeuvred by vanes. The bottom crawler
has tracks or wheels and drives along the
seabed.
(Class 5) Prototype or Development Vehicle.
These are vehicles under development or
special purpose vehicles that do not fit into
the other categories.
Copyright ©

Hydrodynamic Forces
The following will affect both the vessel and the ROV.
 Wave action
 Tidal effects
 Currents
 Wind
The vessel will have a designed thruster configuration that will
determine its actual operating parameters.
The ship’s master and watch officers will get to know their
vessel and will be able to position it to its best capabilities
within its design parameters.
Generally speaking ROV deployment is possible in slightly
more severe weather conditions than air divers.
Hydrodynamic Forces
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Effects on the ROV
The wave and wind action will initially affect the
launching and recovery of the vehicle.
The general methods for launching an ROV are:
 Articulated HIAB type crane.
 A-frame.
 Fixed deployment cursor or guide wire system.
 Crane and quick release hook.
Launching Systems
HIAB Type
This method does not require much deck space so has an
advantage on a smaller vessel.
There is easy access to the vehicle for maintenance or
repair.
A docking mechanism may be fitted which allows for a
smoother launch and recovery and the mechanism
responds quite quickly and is therefore handy in marginal
launch and recovery operations.
This system is usually limited in use to Class 2 vehicles.
Launching Systems
Copyright © TWI Ltd
A-frame Launching System
This system may be mounted on a skid,
mounted over the stern or mounted over the
side of the vessel depending on the weatherkeeping
characteristics of the support vessel.
There is easy access to the vehicle for
maintenance and repair.
A docking mechanism may be fitted.
Launching Systems
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Vehicle is suspended from the frame during
launch and recovery.
During marginal conditions the ROV may develop
a swing that risks damaging it and the A-frame,
which tends to limit the weather parameter.
This system may be used with any class of ROV.
Launching Systems
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Fixed Deployment Cursor Or Guide Wire System
This system is normally installed in a Moon Pool on a
purpose designed support vessel.
The whole system becomes dedicated to the vehicle in
use.
The launch and recovery may be possible in somewhat
more severe weather conditions than the other
systems.
Normally purpose designed facilities are
incorporated to allow easy access for
maintenance and repair.
There may be an issue in the event of the
vehicle becoming dead in the water, as it may
not be possible to recover it to the cursor.
This system is normally reserved for large
Class 3 ROV’s.
Launching Systems
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Crane and Quick Release Hook
A “go-getcha” or line release hook is attached to the ship’s
crane & the ROV is lifted over the side, once launched the
hook is released & the vehicle is free to dive.
The system does not have to be installed on the support
vessel and all that is required is a suitable crane.
There is easy access to the vehicle for maintenance and
repair and the vehicle can be placed anywhere on deck in
reach of the crane.
This system is more weather dependent than other methods.
Vehicle Affected by Hydrodynamic
Forces
The vehicle thruster configuration will determine how it
can react to the hydrodynamic forces acting on it.
There will be a maximum power output available for
thrusters and each thruster will also have a maximum
power consumption and output.
The vehicle has to maintain position in three dimensions
and try to deal with any wave surge when operating at
shallow depths. This may prove impossible at times and, in
marginal weather conditions, there is a limit to how
shallow any vehicle can operate even though it may be
safe to launch it.
Umbilical or Tether Management
System (TMS)
The greatest drag on the ROV will be due to the umbilical
or tether.
This in turn means that the greatest consideration must be
given as to how to minimise this.
Any currents at the work site will have marked affects on
the tether, to the extent that all thruster power may be
required on the fore and aft thrusters just to overcome the
drag force on the tether.
A TMS may be a ‘top hat’ or ‘garage’ system. Both have
advantages and disadvantages.
Umbilical or Tether Management
System (TMS)
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The top hat can recover a dead vehicle better
but the reeling system sometimes fouls up.
The garage gives better protection to the
vehicle but may interfere with some
maintenance tasks.
On the other hand any TMS will add
complications to the handling of the vehicle
while an umbilical only requires a winch and
keeps the system simple.
The advantages of a TMS are:
 There is less drag on the tether.
 The operational ‘footprint’ can be increased.
 The weather window may be increased.
 There is less likelihood of fouling the
umbilical in the ship’s thrusters.
 The ROV will not be so subjected to heave
once released from the TMS.
Umbilical or Tether Management
System (TMS)
Copyright © TWI Ltd
When working on a pipeline the ROV gains from
using a TMS by:
 Reducing umbilical drag.
 Reducing heave.
 Avoiding being pulled off during vessel manoeuvres.
When working on a structure the advantages
are:
 Easier penetration into the structure.
 Less heave at shallow depths.
 Better manoeuvrability as the tether can be neutrally
buoyant causing little drag.